Appendix 1. Red List status of Mediterranean Mammals, CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ammotragus lervia Vulnerable C1

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessment


MediterRanean  Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Annabelle Cuttelod

The Status and Distribution of   Mediterranean Mammals

The Status and Distribution of    Mediterranean Mammals

Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Annabelle Cuttelod

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessment  ii

The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of material, do not imply the expression of any opinion  whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organizations, concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area,  or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organizations.

Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK

Copyright: © 2009 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized

without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully

acknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without

prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Red List logo: © 2008

Citation: Temple, H.J. and Cuttelod, A. (Compilers). 2009. The Status and Distribution of Mediterranean

Mammals. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK : IUCN. vii+32pp.

ISBN: 978-2-8317-1163-8

Cover design: Cambridge Publishers

Cover photo: Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus © Antonio Rivas/P. Ex-situ Lince Ibérico

All photographs used in this publication remain the property of the original copyright holder (see individual captions for details).

Photographs should not be reproduced or used in other contexts without written permission from the copyright holder.

Layout by: Cambridge Publishers

Produced by: Cambridge Publishers

Printed by: Labute

Available from: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Publications Services, 28 Rue

Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland, Tel: + 41 22 999 0000, Fax: + 44 22 999 0020, Email:

books@iucn.org, www.iucn.org/publications

A catalogue of IUCN publications is also available.

Printed in the United Kingdom.

The text of this book is printed on 115 gsm environmentally-friendly paper. iii

Contents   knowledgements...................................................................................................................................................................
Executive summary...................................................................................................................................................................

1. Background.........................................................................................................................................................................1

1.1 The Mediterranean context............................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Mediterranean mammals: diversity and endemism..........................................................................................................1

1.3 Species threatened status................................................................................................................................................4

1.4 Objectives of the assessment..........................................................................................................................................4

2. Assessment methodology....................................................................................................................................................5

2.1 Global versus regional assessment..................................................................................................................................5

2.2 Geographic scope...........................................................................................................................................................5

2.3 Taxonomic scope...........................................................................................................................................................5

2.4 Assessment protocol.......................................................................................................................................................6

2.5 Review workshop (2007) and evaluation of the assessments ...........................................................................................6

3. Results.................................................................................................................................................................................7

3.1 Threatened status of mammals.......................................................................................................................................7

3.2 Extinctions....................................................................................................................................................................7

3.3 Status by taxonomic group............................................................................................................................................7

3.4 Spatial distribution of species.........................................................................................................................................9

3.4.1 Species richness...................................................................................................................................................9

3.4.2 Distribution of threatened species........................................................................................................................9

3.4.3 Endemic species richness ..................................................................................................................................11

3.5 Major threats to terrestrial mammals in the Mediterranean...........................................................................................11

3.6 Demographic trends....................................................................................................................................................13

4. Discussion.........................................................................................................................................................................14

4.1 Status of Mediterranean mammals...............................................................................................................................14

4.2 Extinctions..................................................................................................................................................................14

4.3 Major threats to Mediterranean mammals....................................................................................................................16

4.4 Protection of habitats and species in the Mediterranean................................................................................................17

4.5 Anthropochorous taxa and conservation priorities........................................................................................................18

4.6 Conservation measures needed....................................................................................................................................19

References................................................................................................................................................................................22

Appendix 1. Red List status of Mediterranean Mammals...........................................................................................................24

Appendix 2. Introduced species assessed as Not Applicable (NA) in the Mediterranean region..................................................31

Appendix 3. Methodology for spatial analyses..........................................................................................................................32

iv

All of IUCN’s Red Listing processes rely on the willingness of   scientists to contribute and pool their collective knowledge to make the most reliable estimates of species status. Without their  enthusiastic commitment to species conservation, this kind of  regional overview would not be possible. A list of all participating   scientists can be found at the end of this section, and the specific   contribution of each scientist is fully acknowledged in each of   the detailed individual species assessments.

This regional assessment of Mediterranean mammal species  was coordinated by Helen Temple (IUCN Species Programme)     and Annabelle Cuttelod (IUCN Centre for Mediterranean

Cooperation). We received extensive expert advice and assistance   from many IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Specialist

Groups and Working Groups, including the following:

IUCN SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Bear Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Caprinae Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Chiroptera Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Deer Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Equid Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Hippo Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Hyaena Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Lagomorph Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe

IUCN SSC Otter Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Pig Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Pinniped Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Small Carnivore Specialist Group

IUCN SSC Wolf Specialist Group

Jamie Skinner developed and promoted different aspects  of this project. Jean-Christophe Vié, Simon Stuart, Craig

Hilton-Taylor, Caroline Pollock, Mike Hoffmann and Rami    lman provided guidance, encouragement, and good advice  throughout the project. Mohamed Karmass, Andres Alcantara  and Hugo Ruiz Lozano provided substantial assistance with   financial management of the project. Vineet Katariya, Jim Ragle, and Janice Chanson provided high-quality support on GIS and   database issues. Nieves Garcia helped to compile this report and   wrote the photograph captions.

We would like to thank our host organization, the Civic Centre

(Centro Cívico) of the Diputación de Málaga for their extensive

help with logistical arrangements, for their warm hospitality

and for ensuring that the workshop ran smoothly. Workshop

facilitators were Craig Hilton-Taylor, Caroline Pollock, Dena

Cator, Helen Temple, Annabelle Cuttelod and Sandra Simoes.

Species accounts and maps of Mediterranean mammals were

compiled in collaboration with the IUCN Global Mammal

Assessment (GMA) (www.iucnredlist.org/mammals), and are

based in part on data compiled as part of the European Mammal

Assessment (EMA) (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/

conservation/species/redlist; www.iucnredlist.org/europe).

This work was funded by the MAVA Foundation, with additional

support from the Ayuntamiento de Málaga and the Diputación  de Málaga.

The Mediterranean mammal assessment was entirely dependent

on more than 250 mammal experts from many different

countries in the Mediterranean region and elsewhere, who

generously gave of their time and knowledge. The enthusiasm

and commitment of these people has enabled us to generate

a comprehensive and detailed picture of mammalian status

and trends in the Mediterranean region. We record our thanks

to the following people who contributed to the global and

regional assessments for species included in this report, asking

for forgiveness from anyone whose name is inadvertently

omitted or misspelled:

Acknowledgements

Abramov, A.

Abu Baker, M.A.

Aguilar, A.

Agwanda, B.

Ahmad Khan, J.

Al Dosary, M.

Al Habhani, H.M.

Al Khaldi, A.M.

Al Mutairi, M.S.

Al Nuaimi, A.S.M.

Alcaldé, J.T.

Alkon, P.U.

Amori, G.

Amr, Z.

Anderson, M.

Angelici, F.M.

Aplin, K.

Ariunbold, J.

Arumugam, R.

Asa, C.S.

Aulagnier, S.

Avirmed, D.

Baillie, J.

Balciauskas, L.

Barry, R.

Batbold, J.

Bates, P.

Batsaikhan, N.

Bauer, H.

Begg, C.

Begg, K.

Belbachir, F.

Benda, P.

Berducou, C.

Bergmans, W.

Bertolino, S.

Bisther, M.

Bloomer, P.

Boitani, L.

Boyer, A.

v

Bozdogan, M.

Breitenmoser, U.

Breitenmoser-Wursten, C.

Bukhnikashvili, A.

Bumrungsri, S.

Butynski, T.M.

Buuveibaatar, V.

Camperio-Ciani, A.

Cassinello, J.

Cavallini, P.

Choudhury, A.

Chundawat, R.S.

Cianfrani, C.

Conroy, J.

Coroiu, I.

Cortes, J.

Cotterill, F.P.D.

Csorba, G.

Cuzin, F.

de Iongh, H.

de Silva, P.K.

de Smet, K.

Dieterlen, F.

Dorjderem, S.

Drew, C.

Duckworth, J.W.

Durant, S.

Eken, G.

Ekué, M.R.M.

Fa, J.

Fahr, J.

Feh, C.

Fernandes, M.

FitzGibbon, C.

Formozov, N.

Francis, C.

Geffen, E.

Giannatos, G.

Gimenez Dixon, M.

Gippoliti, S.

Granjon, L.

Grubb, P.

Gumal, M.

Habib, B.

Hadjisterkotis, E.

Hajkova, P.

Harding, L.

Hefner, R.

Helgen, K.

Henschel, P.

Henttonen, H.

Herrero, J.

Herrmann, M.

Hobbelink, M.E.

Hoeck, H.

Hoffmann, M.

Howell, K.

Huber, D.

Hunter, L.

Hutson, A.M.

Hutterer, R.

Isfendiyaroglu, S.

Jacobs, D.

Jdeidi, T.

Jenkins, P.

Jhala, Y.V.

Johnston, C.H.

Juškaitis, R.

Juste, J.

Kaneko, Y.

Karanth, U.

Karataş, A.

Kawanishi, K.

Kebede, F.

Kefelioglu, H.

Kingston, T.

Kingswood, S.

Kitchener, A.

Kock, D.

Kranz, A.

Kryštufek, B.

Lamarque, F.

Lavrenchenko, L.

Lenain, D.M.

Leus, K.

Lewison, R.

Libois, R.

Lkhagvasuren, D.

Lovari, S.

Lowry, L.

Loy, A.

Lunde, D.

Lynam, T.

Mallon, D.P.

Maran, T.

Marker, L.

Masseti, M.

McCreery, K.

McDonald, D.W.

McDonald, R.

McLellan, B.N.

McNutt, J.W.

Mech, L.D.

Meinig, H.

Menard, N.

Mertzanidou, D.

Mickleburgh, S.

Mills, G.

Miquelle, D.

Mira, A.

Mitsain, G.

Moehlman, P.D.

Mohammed, O.B.

Molur, S.

Monadjem, A.

Monkhzul, Ts.

Mouna, M.

Mukherjee, S.

Muñoz, L.J.P.

Murdoch, J.

Musser, G.

Nader, I.

Nagy, Z.

Newby, J.

Noblet, J.F.

Nowell, K.

Nyhus, P.

O’Donovan, D.

Oguge, N.

Oliver, W.

Olszanska, A.

Otgonbaatar, M.

Packer, C.

Packer, K.

Palmeirim, J.

Palomares, F.

Paunović, M.

Pérez, J.M.

Perrin, M.

Pita, R.

Purchase, N.

Qarqas, M.

Rabiei, A.

Rahman, E.A.

Rainho, A.

Randi, E.

Rasmussen, G.

Reid, F.

Reuther, C.

Reynolds, J.C.

Riga, F.

Rigaux, P.

Robbins, R.

Roos, A.

Ruiz-Olmo, J.

Saleh, M.

Saltz, D.

Sami Amr, Z.

Samiya, R.

Sanderson, J.

Schlitter, D.

Scott, D.

Servheen, C.

Shah, N.

Shar, S.

Sharifi, M.

Sheftel, B.

Shenbrot, G.

Shoshani, H.

Sillero-Zubiri, C.

Simkins, G.

Sliwa, A.

Smith, A.

Sogbohossou, E.

Sozen, M.

Spitzenberger, F.

Srinivasulu, C.

Steinmetz, R.

Strauss, M.

Stuart, C.

Stübbe, M.

Sukhchuluun, G.

Sunarto, S.

Taylor, P.

Tchabovsky, A.

Teclai, R.

Tikhonov, A.

Tinnin, D.

Trocchi, V.

Tsogbadrakh, M.

Tsytsulina, K.

Valdespino, C.

Valdez, R.

van der Straeten, E.

van Lavieren, E.

Vaslin, M.

Vohralík, V.

von Arx, M.

Wacher, T.

Wagner, A.

Wang, S.

Waters, S.

Weinberg, P.

Woodroffe, R.

Wozencraft, C.

Wright, P.

Yigit, N.

Yohannes, H.

Yom-Tov, Y.

Yonzon, P.

Yoxon, G.

Yoxon, P.

Zagorodnyuk, I.

Zemanova, B.

Zima, J.

vi

Aim

The Mediterranean Biodiversity Assessment is a review of

the conservation status of a wide range of Mediterranean

species – mammals, reptiles, amphibians, freshwater and

marine fishes, freshwater molluscs, dragonflies, freshwater

crabs and crayfish, and selected groups of vascular

plants. This Red List publication summarizes results for

Mediterranean terrestrial mammals, and provides the first

overview of the conservation status of these species to follow

IUCN regional Red Listing guidelines. It identifies species

that are threatened with extinction at the regional level – in

order that appropriate conservation action can be taken to

improve their status.

Scope

All terrestrial mammal species native to the Mediterranean

or naturalized since before 1500 A.D. are included in this

report. One marine and coastal species, the Mediterranean

Monk Seal Monachus monachus is also included.

Mediterranean cetaceans (dolphins and whales) are

covered in a separate publication. For the purposes of this

mammal assessment, the Mediterranean region was defined

politically to include the following countries: Albania,

Algeria, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,

Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Jordan,

Lebanon, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, FYR Macedonia, Malta,

Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Occupied Palestinian

Territories, Portugal (including Madeira), San Marino,

Serbia, Slovenia, Spain (including the Canary Islands),

Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Turkey and

Western Sahara.

Status assessment

The status of all species was assessed using the IUCN Red

List Criteria (IUCN 2001), which are the world’s most

widely accepted system for measuring relative extinction

risk. All assessments followed the Guidelines for Application

of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels (IUCN 2003).

Information on each species was compiled by a small

team, in collaboration with IUCN Specialist Groups and

other experts. Regional assessments were carried out at an

assessment workshop and through correspondence with

relevant experts. More than 250 mammal experts from a

large number of different countries in the Mediterranean

and elsewhere actively participated in the data compilation,

assessment and review process.

Results

One in six (16.5%) Mediterranean mammals included in

this report are threatened with extinction at the regional

scale, with a further 8% assessed as Near Threatened. By

comparison, 56% of Mediterranean endemic freshwater

fishes (Smith & Darwall 2006), 56% of dolphins and whales

(Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006), 42% of sharks

and rays (Cavanagh & Gibson 2007), 36% of crabs and

crayfish (Cuttelod et al. 2008), 29% of amphibians (Cox

et al. 2006), 19% of dragonflies and damselflies (Riservato

et al. 2009), 13% of reptiles (Cox et al. 2006) and 5% of

birds (Cuttelod et al. 2008) are considered to be threatened.

One mammal species, the Sardinian Pika Prolagus sardus, has

become globally extinct since 1500 A.D. and a further seven

species, including the Lion Panthera leo and Tiger P. tigris

have been extirpated from the Mediterranean region.

More than one-quarter (27%) of Mediterranean mammals

have declining populations, 31% are stable, while for a

further 40% the population trend is unknown; only 3%

of species populations are increasing. A number of these

increases are due to successful species-specific conservation

action. Terrestrial mammal biodiversity is greatest in

mountainous parts of the region, with particularly high

concentrations of threatened species found in the mountains

of Turkey, the Levant, and north-west Africa. The Maghreb

holds a large number of endemic species, which are unique

to the Mediterranean and found nowhere else in the world.

Although the Sahara has relatively low species richness, a

high proportion of Saharan species are threatened.

Many of the threatened mammal species are endemic to the

region, highlighting the responsibility that Mediterranean

countries have to protect the entire global populations of

these species. Of the 49 threatened species, 20 (41%) are

unique to the region and occur nowhere else in the world.

The greatest threat to Mediterranean mammals is destruction

and degradation of habitat, caused by a variety of factors

including agricultural intensification, urbanization, pollution,

and climate change. Human disturbance, overexploitation

and invasive species are also major threats.

Conservation recommendations

For bats, the main recommendations are to improve the legal

protection framework, to better enforce existing legislation,

and to encourage more environmentally friendly practices in

agriculture and when restoring buildings. Further research

Executive summary

vii

is needed on a number of issues including habitat and

foraging requirements, population size and trends, impacts

of pesticide use on prey species, and methods to minimize

impacts of wind farms.

For non-volant (flightless) small mammals more sustainable

agricultural practices are needed to prevent habitat loss and

degradation both from agricultural intensification and land

abandonment. Legislation and enforcement of existing

measures are needed to prevent the introduction of alien

invasive species such as the American Mink Neovison vison.

Measures to raise public awareness of the diversity, importance

and threats to small mammals are needed in order to modify

their “pest” image and explain their ecological importance.

For large mammals, recommendations include

improvement of management of protected areas and of the

wider environment, better enforcement of existing laws and

regulations controlling hunting (including new legislation

in some cases), and development and implementation of

species-specific management plans for the most threatened

species. Restoring habitats and wild prey populations at the

landscape level is essential for the conservation of threatened

large carnivores; large herbivores similarly require landscapelevel

actions to ensure the maintenance of grazing systems.

The conservation of large carnivores can be controversial

– understanding people’s attitudes towards predators

and gaining their acceptance is crucial to the success of

conservation and management programmes.

viii

The Barbary Macaque Macaca sylvanus is Endangered (EN) and in decline as it is threatened by the loss and degradation of its habitat.

It is the only surviving primate in Africa north of the Sahara desert and the only native species of primate to occur in Europe. It was

previously widespread throughout North Africa but its current distribution is limited to small patches of forest and scrub in Algeria and

Morocco. A semi-wild population lives on Gibraltar, where it was introduced in historical times. Photograph © Ricardo Rocha.

1

1.1 The Mediterranean context

The Mediterranean Basin, stretching west to east from Portugal

to the Levant, covers three continents (Europe, Asia and Africa).

The region is characterized by its climate, where cool and wet

winters alternate with long, hot, dry summers. In some areas,

for example in Libya and Egypt, annual rainfall can be as low as

50mm per year, whereas in the well-watered regions, such as the

Adriatic coast of the Balkan countries, rainfall is over 1,000mm.

With almost 5,000 islands and islets, the Mediterranean

comprises one of the largest groups of islands in the world. The

islands are of high value to global biodiversity due to their wealth

of species, relatively high levels of endemism, long history of

isolation, and tolerance of many kinds of disruptions, as well as

their role as a natural laboratory for evolutionary studies.

Besides the variety of these climatic, geological and hydrological

features, the Mediterranean has experienced intense human

development and impact on its ecosystems for thousands of

years, and various forms of human settlements have existed

there for at least 8,000 years. This has created a mosaic of

natural and cultural landscapes, with thousands of habitats,

ranging from high mountains to large rivers, from wetlands

and forests to deserts, which favor the differentiation and

existence of numerous species, leading to the high level of

endemism found in the region. It is therefore not surprising

that the Mediterranean Basin is one of the world’s richest places

in terms of animal and plant diversity and has been recognized

as one of 34 Biodiversity Hotspots (Mittermeier et al. 2004).

However, this ancient, rich and diverse region is now facing

severe pressure. The Mediterranean-rim countries hold

around 400 million people, and 135 million of them live

on the Mediterranean coast. The Blue Plan estimates that

the population of the northern-rim nations will grow by

around 4 million between 2000 and 2025; the population of

the southern- and eastern-rim nations will grow by around

98 million over the same period. Considerable economic

disparities exist within the region, with the GNI per capita of

the Mediterranean EU countries (USD 20,800) being ten times

that of the North African ones (USD 2,100) (World Bank

2006). Poor people depend heavily on natural resources and the

loss of biodiversity is undermining the potential for economic

growth, affecting the security of populations (food, health,

etc.) and limiting their options. On the other hand, economic

development increases the pressures on the environment and

hence conservation challenges and options in the region are

driven by these economic inequities. Mediterranean countries

are also an international travel destination for nearly 250

million visitors per year – 31% of all international tourists –

the majority of whom visit the coastal zone (Blue Plan 2008).

Many visitors to the region are drawn by its natural beauty, but

heavy pressure from visitors and residents alike is causing severe

environmental degradation.

Furthermore, low rainfall combined with unsustainable farming

practices has also led to desertification, erosion, salinization

and land degradation in many areas, with for example 30%

of Greece being declared “threatened” and 60% of Portugal

facing a moderate risk of desertification. Forests have always

played, and still play, an important role in the daily life of the

Mediterranean peoples. Although Mediterranean forests provide

low direct economic returns on wood products in comparison

to the Northern European forests, they play a crucial role in

maintaining key ecosystem components for securing human

welfare and life in the region. Previously, exploitation of the

natural landscape was long, slow and relatively sustainable. In

the past decades, that balance between nature and humankind

has been lost. Urbanization, coastal development, pollution,

agricultural intensification, unsustainable exploitation of

natural resources and climate change are just some of the many

human activities that are leading an ever-increasing number of

Mediterranean species to be facing a high risk of extinction.

1.2 Mediterranean mammals: diversity

and endemism

Mammals are a well-known class of vertebrates, including

many familiar domesticated species and pets, as well as our own

species Homo sapiens. All mammals are warm-blooded, and all

female mammals possess mammary glands (mammae), which

are used to suckle the young with milk. Mammals are further

distinguished by the possession of hair or fur, although this

is limited to early developmental stages in cetaceans (whales

and dolphins). The vast majority of mammals give birth to live

young, the exception being the egg-laying Monotremata (a

small group of mammals including the Duck-billed Platypus

and the echidnas or spiny anteaters), which do not occur in the

Mediterranean (Nowak 1999).

The mammal fauna of the Mediterranean is largely derived from

the Eurasian and African biogeographic zones and therefore

exhibits relatively low levels of endemism, as most species tend

to have very wide ranges. Within the study region, there are

319 terrestrial mammal species, of which 89 species (28%) are

endemic, and 15 species of marine mammal, of which none

are endemic (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) (Tables

1 & 2). Of these 334 species, 320 were included in the present

study: all terrestrial species plus the Mediterranean Monk Seal

Monachus monachus. Mediterranean cetaceans are covered in a

separate report (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).

1. Background

2

Order Family Number of species Number of

endemic species

Percentage endemic

Carnivora Canidae 7 0 0%

Felidae 11 1 9.1%

Herpestidae 2 0 0%

Hyaenidae 2 0 0%

Mustelidae 13 1 7.7%

Phocidae 1 0 0%

Ursidae 1 0 0%

Viverridae 1 0 0%

Cetartiodactyla Bovidae 19 3 15.8%

Cervidae 4 1 25.0%

Hippopotamidae 1 0 0%

Suidae 1 0 0%

Chiroptera Emballonuridae 2 0 0%

Hipposideridae 2 0 0%

Molossidae 2 0 0%

Nycteridae 1 0 0%

Pteropodidae 1 0 0%

Rhinolophidae 6 0 0%

Rhinopomatidae 2 0 0%

Vespertilionidae 45 7 15.6%

Eulipotyphla Erinaceidae 6 1 16.7%

Soricidae 34 14 41.2%

Talpidae 9 5 55.6%

Hyracoidea Procaviidae 1 0 0%

Lagomorpha Leporidae 8 4 50.0%

Prolagidae 1 1 100.0%

Macroscelidea Macroscelididae 1 1 100.0%

Perissodactyla Equidae 2 0 0%

Primates Cercopithecidae 1 1 100.0%

Rodentia Calomyscidae 2 1 50.0%

Castoridae 1 0 0%

Cricetidae 36 15 41.7%

Ctenodactylidae 3 2 66.7%

Dipodidae 7 2 28.6%

Gliridae 9 3 33.3%

Hystricidae 2 0 0%

Muridae 62 24 38.7%

Sciuridae 8 2 25.0%

Spalacidae 3 0 0%

Total 320 89 27.8%

* This table includes species that are native or naturalized since before 1500 A.D.; species introduced after this date are not included. Extinct and Regionally

Extinct species are included. Species of marginal occurrence in the Mediterranean are included.

Table 1. Diversity and endemism in mammalian orders and families in the Mediterranean region (excluding cetaceans, but

including the Mediterranean Monk Seal)*

3

Terrestrial mammals native to the Mediterranean belong to

ten major groups: Carnivora (carnivores), Cetartiodactyla

(even-toed ungulates, dolphins and whales), Chiroptera (bats),

Eulipotyphla (shrews, moles and hedgehogs), Hyracoidea

(hyraxes) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas), Macroscelidea

(elephant shrews), Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates), Primates

(primates) and Rodentia (rodents).

Marine mammals native to the Mediterranean belong to

two taxonomic orders, the Cetartiodactyla and Carnivora.

Mediterranean marine carnivores are represented by a single

species, the Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus monachus.

Fourteen species of whales and dolphins regularly occur in the

Mediterranean region (Table 2), with a further eight species

recorded as vagrants (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).

The majority of Mediterranean mammal species are small nonvolant

and volant mammals belonging to the orders Rodentia

(rodents), Chiroptera (bats), and Eulipotyphla (shrews, moles

and hedgehogs) (see Table 1). The largest mammal family

in the Mediterranean, and also the largest and most diverse

family at the global level, is the Muridae (rats and mice), with

62 species. Murid subfamilies present in the Mediterranean

include the Deomyinae (spiny mice), the Gerbillinae (gerbils

and jirds) and the Murinae (Old World rats and mice). Other

families with a particularly large number of representatives in

the Mediterranean region include the Vespertilionidae (evening

bats and vesper bats – 45 species) and Cricetidae (hamsters and

voles – 36 species).

Just over one-quarter of terrestrial mammal species are endemic

to the Mediterranean. Endemism is particularly high in the

small non-volant mammals (Rodentia and Eulipotyphla). Larger

terrestrial mammals and bats tend to be more mobile and wideranging,

and the majority of these species have ranges extending

outside the region. However, among larger mammal species

there is a high proportion of endemism in the lagomorphs

(hares, rabbits and pikas – 5 out of 9 species present are endemic

to the Mediterranean). The Barbary Macaque is endemic to the

Order Family Number of species Number of

endemic species

Percentage endemic

Cetartiodactyla Balaenopteridae 3 0 0%

Delphinidae 8 0 0%

Phocoenidae 1 0 0%

Physeteridae 1 0 0%

Ziphiidae 1 0 0%

Total 14 0 0%

Table 2. Diversity and endemism in cetacean (whale, dolphin and porpoise) families in the Mediterranean region*

* Cetacean families are listed for the sake of completeness, but were not included in the assessment process reported here and are not covered in subsequent

sections of this publication. This list does not include species considered to be vagrants in the region by Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara (2006).

Mediterranean, and consequently 100% of primate species

occurring in the region are endemic.

Although mammals are one of the better known taxonomic

groups, there are still new discoveries to be made regarding

mammalian diversity and endemism in the region: two new

species endemic to Mediterranean islands, the Sardinian Longeared

Bat Plecotus sardus and the Cyprus Mouse Mus cypriacus

have been described in recent years (Mucedda et al. 2002,

Bonhomme et al. 2004, Cucchi et al. 2006).

The Iberian Lynx Lynx pardinus is the world’s most threatened felid species. It is endemic

to Spain and Portugal, and currently categorised by IUCN as Critically Endangered

(CR) as a result of the fragmentation of its natural habitat by agricultural and industrial

development. Photograph © Programa de Conservación Ex s itu del Lince Ibérico.

4

1.3 Species threatened status

The threatened status of plants and animals is one of the most

widely used indicators for assessing the condition of ecosystems

and their biodiversity. It also provides an important tool

underpinning priority-setting exercises for species conservation.

At the global scale the best source of information on the

conservation status of plants and animals is the IUCN Red

List of Threatened Species (see www.iucnredlist.org). The Red

List provides taxonomic, conservation status, and distribution

information on taxa that have been evaluated using the IUCN

Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 (IUCN 2001). This

system is designed to determine the relative risk of extinction,

with the main purpose of cataloguing and highlighting those

taxa that are facing a higher risk of extinction (i.e., those listed

as Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable).

1.4 O bjectives of the assessment

This assessment of mammals in the Mediterranean basin has

two main objectives:

■ To assist in regional conservation planning by assessing the

status and distribution of all species occurring within the

region; and

■ To develop a network of regional experts to support future

assessments and the updating of the information on these

species.

The assessment provides two main direct outputs:

A report on the status of the mammals of the Mediterranean

basin, including a Red List assessment of all the species, an

identification of the main threats for each species, and a spatial

representation of the centres of species richness and threats;

A database that provides a baseline for monitoring the status of

Mediterranean mammals.

The data presented in this report and the booklet provides a

snapshot based on available knowledge at the time of writing.

The database will continue to be updated and made freely

and widely available. IUCN will ensure wide dissemination

of this data to relevant decision makers, NGOs, and scientists

to inform the implementation of conservation actions on the

ground.

Figure 1. IUCN Red List Categories at the regional level (IUCN 2003)

5

2.1 Global versus regional assessment

The present study was an assessment of the regional conservation

status of all Mediterranean mammal species (excluding the

cetaceans), following the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red

List Criteria at Regional Levels (IUCN 2003). It complements

and contributes to the global status assessments of Mediterranean

mammal species carried out through the Global Mammal

Assessment (GMA) (see Schipper et al. 2008). A regional approach

to identifying threatened species complements global conservation

status assessments, and provides information at an appropriate scale

for international conservation policies and legislation that have a

regional focus. The information provided here will help to put

national conservation priorities into a Mediterranean context, thus

maximising the effectiveness of local and national conservation

measures, and facilitating the development of integrated regional

conservation strategies.

2.2 Geographic scope

The Mediterranean basin was defined politically to include the

following countries and territories1: Albania, Algeria, Andorra,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt,

France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libyan Arab

Jamahiriya, FYR Macedonia, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro,

Morocco, Occupied Palestinian Territories, Portugal (including

Madeira), San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain (including the

Canary Islands), Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia,

Turkey and Western Sahara (Figure 2).

2.3 Taxonomic scope

All mammal species native to the Mediterranean or naturalized before

1500 A.D. were included in the assessment, with the exception of

the cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) that are assessed at

the regional level through a separate initiative led by the IUCN SSC

Cetacean Specialist Group (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).

Domesticated species are not eligible for classification according to

the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, and were excluded

from the assessment. Species introduced to the Mediterranean

region by man after 1500 A.D., as well as species that are vagrant or

of marginal or uncertain occurrence, were classed as Not Applicable.

The Mediterranean mammal assessment uses the third edition

of Mammal Species of the World (Wilson and Reeder 2005) as its

default taxonomy for most taxonomic groups, although it departs

from this in a few justified circumstances. Distinct subpopulations

and subspecies of mammals within the Mediterranean were not

individually assessed as part of this project.

¹ As listed by United Nations

2. Assessment methodology

Expert participants at the Mediterranean Mammal Red List workshop held in Málaga, Spain, 29 October – 2 November 2007. Photograph © Sandra Simoes.

6

2.4 Assessment protocol

For every mammal species native to the Mediterranean or

naturalized before 1500 A.D., the following data were compiled;

Species’ taxonomic classification, Geographic range (including

a distribution map), Red List Category and Criteria, Population

information, Habitat preferences, Major threats, Conservation

measures (in place, and needed), Species utilization, Other general

information and Key literature references.

These data were compiled in collaboration with the IUCN Global

Mammal Assessment (GMA) and European Mammal Assessment

(EMA). For detailed information on the GMA and EMA data

compilation processes, see Schipper et al. (2008) and Temple &

Terry (2007). Many Mediterranean mammal species had already

been preliminarily reviewed during at least one other regional or

taxon-focused workshop, including the Africa Small Mammals

workshop (24-30 January 2004, United Kingdom), the European

Mammal Assessment workshop (18-22 May 2006, Austria), and

the Southwest Asia Mammals Workshop (22-25 November 2005,

Turkey).

2.5 Review workshop (2007) and

evaluation of assessments

Mammal experts from the Mediterranean were invited to attend

a five-day review workshop held from 29 October – 2 November

2007 in Malaga, Spain. Focused working groups were organized

to efficiently review taxonomic sets of species (large mammals,

bats, and small non-volant mammals).

Preliminary species summary reports, distribution maps and

global assessments were distributed to all the participants before

the workshop to allow them to review the data presented and

prepare any changes to the data.

New information was added to the species summaries and maps,

and corrections to existing data were made. Red List assessments

for each species were then made at the Mediterranean regional

level (according to regional Red Listing guidelines; IUCN 2003).

Facilitating staff from the IUCN Species Programme evaluated

the assessments to check they complied with the guidelines for

application of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria and

included the most up-to-date, comprehensive information.

Following the review workshop, the data were edited, and

outstanding questions were resolved through communications

with the workshop participants. The post-workshop assessments

were also made available on an FTP site to allow the participating

scientists to make any final edits and corrections.

The resulting finalized IUCN Red List assessments are a product

of scientific consensus concerning species status and are backed by

relevant literature and data sources.

Figure 2. The Mediterranean mammal assessment region

7

3.1 Threatened status of mammals

Approximately one-sixth (16.5%) of mammal species

assessed were found to be threatened with extinction in the

Mediterranean, of which 3.0% were Critically Endangered,

5.1% were Endangered and 8.4% were Vulnerable (Table 3 and

Figure 3). A further 7.7% were considered Near Threatened, and

2.7% were already Extinct or Regionally Extinct. A relatively

high proportion of species, 12.5%, were considered to be Data

Deficient. Species classed as threatened (Critically Endangered,

Endangered and Vulnerable) are listed in Table 4.

3. Results

IUCN Red List categories No. species No. endemic species

Extinct (EX) 1 1

Extinct in the Wild (EW) 0 0

Regionally Extinct (RE) 7 7

Threatened

categories

Critically Endangered (CR) 9 1

Endangered (EN) 15 7

Vulnerable (VU) 25 12

Near Threatened (NT) 23 3

Least Concern (LC) 180 48

Data Deficient (DD) 37 17

Total number of species assessed* 297 89

*Excluding 23 species that are considered Not Applicable as they are of marginal occurrence in the region.

Table 3. Summary of numbers of mammal species within each category of threat

Figure 3. Red List status of mammals in the Mediterranean

3.2 E xtinctions

One endemic Mediterranean mammal species, the Sardinian

Pika Prolagus sardus, is known to have gone extinct since 1500

A.D. A further seven species (2.4% of the total number of

species assessed) have been extirpated from the Mediterranean

as a result of human activities and are considered Regionally

Extinct (Table 6).

3.3 Status by taxonomic group

Terrestrial mammals native to the Mediterranean belong to

ten major groups or taxonomic orders: Carnivora (carnivores),

Cetartiodactyla (even-toed ungulates, dolphins and whales),

Chiroptera (bats), Eulipotyphla (shrews, moles and hedgehogs),

Hyracoidea (hyraxes) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas),

Macroscelidea (elephant shrews), Perissodactyla (odd-toed

ungulates), Primates (primates) and Rodentia (rodents).

Considerable differences exist among these groups in both

species numbers as well as threatened status (see Table 5).

Rodents, bats, shrews, hedgehogs and moles constitute the

majority of Mediterranean mammals. Ungulates, primates,

carnivores and lagomorphs (rabbits and hares) are particularly

threatened, and eight species from these groups have already

gone extinct in the Mediterranean region.

8

Order Family Scientific name Common name

Red List

Category Endemic?

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Lycaon pictus African Wild Dog CR

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Leptailurus serval Serval CR

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx pardinus Iberian Lynx CR Yes

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera pardus Leopard CR

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela lutreola European Mink CR

CARNIVORA PHOCIDAE Monachus monachus Mediterranean Monk Seal CR

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella subgutturosa Goitered Gazelle CR

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Nanger dama Dama Gazelle CR

PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus africanus African Wild Ass CR

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Acinonyx jubatus Cheetah EN

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx lynx Eurasian Lynx EN

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella cuvieri Cuvier’s Gazelle EN Yes

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella dorcas Dorcas Gazelle EN

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella leptoceros Slender-horned Gazelle EN

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx leucoryx Arabian Oryx EN

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ovis orientalis Urial EN

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus azoreum Azores Noctule EN Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus maderensis Madeira Pipistrelle EN Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus teneriffae Canary Long-eared Bat EN Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura canariensis Canary Shrew EN Yes

PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus hemionus Asiatic Wild Ass EN

PRIMATES CERCOPITHECIDAE Macaca sylvanus Barbary Macaque EN Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hesperinus Western Gerbil EN Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones dahli Dahl’s Jird EN

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes cana Blanford’s Fox VU

CARNIVORA HYAENIDAE Hyaena hyaena Striped Hyaena VU

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Vormela peregusna European Marbled Polecat VU

CARNIVORA URSIDAE Ursus arctos Brown Bear VU

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ammotragus lervia Aoudad VU

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra aegagrus Wild Goat VU

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra nubiana Nubian Ibex VU

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella gazella Mountain Gazelle VU

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus euryale Mediterranean Horseshoe Bat VU

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus mehelyi Mehely’s Horseshoe Bat VU

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis capaccinii Long-fingered Bat VU

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus sardus Sardinian Long-eared Bat VU Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura zimmermanni Cretan White-toothed Shrew VU Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Galemys pyrenaicus Pyrenean Desman VU Yes

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus castroviejoi Broom Hare VU Yes

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus corsicanus Corsican Hare VU Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola sapidus Southwestern Water Vole VU Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Dinaromys bogdanovi Balkan Snow Vole VU Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus auratus Golden Hamster VU Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Prometheomys schaposchnikowi Long-clawed Mole Vole VU

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga tetradactyla Four-toed Jerboa VU Yes

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Myomimus roachi Roach’s Mouse-tailed Dormouse VU Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hoogstraali Hoogstraal’s Gerbil VU Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones sacramenti Buxton’s Jird VU Yes

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus citellus European Ground Squirrel VU

Table 4. Threatened Mediterranean mammal species

9

3.4 Spatial distribution of species

3.4.1 Species richness

Information on the species richness of mammals within orders

and families has already been given in Section 1.2 and Tables 1

and 2. The geographic distribution of mammal species richness

in Mediterranean basin countries is presented in Figure 4. The

mountainous parts of the region clearly stand out as areas of high

species richness. In the European part of the Mediterranean,

this includes the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Alps, Apennines,

Carpathians, and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. In

Asian and African parts of the Mediterranean, this includes

the mountains of Turkey, the Levant region, and the Atlas,

Anti-Atlas and Rif ranges in north-west Africa. Looking at

mammalian diversity from a country perspective, the top five

countries in terms of species richness are (in descending order):

Turkey, Morocco, Italy, Israel and France (see Table 7). Turkey

has a particularly high species richness as it is a large country

that spans several biogeographic regions. Although the Balkan

region has very high species richness, the individual countries

in this region are small and none of them appear in the top

five.

3.4.2 Distribution of threatened species

A map showing the distribution of threatened mammals in the

Mediterranean (Figure 5) reveals somewhat different patterns

from depictions of overall species diversity. North-west Africa,

Turkey and the Levant all hold important concentrations of

threatened species. Although overall species richness in the

Sahara is low, the proportion of threatened species there is

high, in part as a result of the heavy pressure placed on the few

species of desert antelopes by over-hunting.

Order Total* EX RE CR EN VU NT LC DD % threatened

% Extinct or

Regionally Extinct

CARNIVORA 36 2 6 2 4 4 17 1 33.3 5.6

CETARTIODACTYLA** 25 5 2 5 4 8 1 44.0 20.0

CHIROPTERA 55 3 4 11 29 8 12.7 0.0

EULIPOTYPHLA 45 1 2 1 33 8 6.7 0.0

HYRACOIDEA 1 1 0.0 0.0

LAGOMORPHA 8 1 2 1 4 25.0 12.5

MACROSCELIDEA 1 1 0.0 0.0

PERISSODACTYLA 2 1 1 100.0 0.0

PRIMATES 1 1 100.0 0.0

RODENTIA 123 2 9 6 87 19 8.9 0.0

Total 297 1 7 9 15 25 23 180 37 16.5 2.7

Table 5. Red List Status (Mediterranean Regional level) by taxonomic order

* Does not include species classed as Not Applicable (NA).

** Terrestrial species only; excluding dolphins and whales.

Order Family Scientific name Common name

IUCN Red List

category

LAGOMORPHA PROLAGIDAE Prolagus sardus Sardinian Pika Extinct

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera leo Lion Regionally Extinct

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera tigris Tiger Regionally Extinct

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Addax nasomaculatus Addax Regionally Extinct

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Alcelaphus buselaphus Hartebeest Regionally Extinct

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx dammah Scimitar-horned Oryx Regionally Extinct*

CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Dama mesopotamica Mesopotamian Fallow

Deer Regionally Extinct

CETARTIODACTYLA HIPPOPOTAMIDAE Hippopotamus amphibius Common

Hippopotamus Regionally Extinct

Table 6. Mediterranean mammal species considered Extinct or Regionally Extinct

* This species is extinct as a wild species in the region, although there are still some populations in fenced enclosures.

10

Figure 4. Species richness of Mediterranean mammals

Figure 5. Distribution of threatened mammals in the Mediterranean

11

3.4.3 Endemic species richness

Figure 6 shows the distribution of endemic mammal species

(ie, those that are unique to the Mediterranean and are found

nowhere else in the world, see Table 1). Endemic species richness

is particularly high in the Maghreb, although the Iberian

and Italian peninsulas also hold important concentrations of

endemic mammals, as do the Mediterranean islands.

Name

Total

number

of species*

Number of

endemic

species*

Number of

threatened

species*

Albania 69 4 5

Algeria 95 19 14

Andorra 47 5 4

Bosnia and

Herzegovina

78 4 7

Bulgaria 91 3 10

Croatia 88 3 9

Cyprus 26 2 3

Egypt 92 13 15

France 96 14 8

Greece 91 10 9

Israel 98 5 16

Italy 100 15 8

Jordan 78 1 14

Lebanon 63 2 9

Lybia 80 20 10

Macedonia, FYR 77 6 8

Malta 19 4 1

Monaco 28 1 1

Montenegro 86 6 9

Morocco 105 22 16

Palestinian

Territories

27 1 5

Portugal 64 13 8

San Marino 27 1 2

Serbia 93 7 9

Slovenia 82 0 6

Spain 90 20 14

Switzerland 84 4 5

Syria 89 3 15

Tunisia 75 18 14

Turkey 144 11 17

Western Sahara 34 4 5

Table 7. Number of mammal species in the countries

and territories included in the Mediterranean assessment

region

* Including species classed as Not Applicable (marginal occurrence).

Including native and reintroduced species; excluding introduced species.

Including extant, possibly extinct and extinct species (since 1500 A.D.);

excluding species classed as “presence uncertain”. This list includes all

terrestrial mammal species plus the Mediterranean Monk Seal; it excludes

cetaceans (dolphins and whales).

3.5 Major threats to terrestrial mammals

in the Mediterranean

The major threats to each species were coded using the

IUCN-Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP) Unified

Classification of Direct Threats. In addition to the direct threats

identified as actual or potential drivers of population change,

accompanying non-exclusive stresses were coded with each

threat to highlight how a threat impacts upon a population. A

summary of the relative importance of the different threatening

processes and the stresses that they cause is shown in Figures 7

and 8.

The threats to Mediterranean mammals are many and varied:

agriculture, hunting and trapping, and invasive species are the

most severe, respectively affecting 31 (65%), 29 (60%) and 24

(50%) threatened species. These create stresses on mammal

populations in a range of ways, the most common being habitat

destruction and degradation, which affect 43 (90%) threatened

species (Figure 8).

The Balkan Snow Vole Dinaromys bogdanovi is considered to be Vulnerable (VU). It is

endemic to the Mediterranean region, where it has a very limited and fragmented range.

Photography © Boris Krystufek.

12

Figure 6. Endemic species richness of mammals in the Mediterranean

Figure 7. Main threats to terrestrial mammals in the Mediterranean region

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Agriculture

Hunting & trapping

Invasive species

Human intrusions & disturbance

Resdidential & commercial development

Pollution

Logging

Climate change & weather

Dams & water use/management

Transportation & service corridors

Change in fire regime

Energy production & mining

Threatened species (CR, EN, VU)

Non-threatened species (NT, LC)

Number of species

13

Figure 8. Main stresses on terrestrial mammals in the Mediterranean region

Figure 9. Population trends of Mediterranean mammals

0 20 40 60 80 100

3.6 D emographic trends

Documenting population trends is a key to assessing species

status, and an effort was made to determine which species

are believed to be declining, stable, or increasing. More than

one-quarter (27%) of Mediterranean mammals are declining

in population. A further 31% are stable, and only 3% are

Ecosystem

conversion/degredation

Direct mortality

Disturbance

Competition

Hybridisation

Threatened species (CR, EN, VU)

Non-threatened species (NT, LC)

Number of species

increasing (see Figure 9). A number of these increases are due

to successful species-based conservation action (for example

in the cases of the Iberian Wild Goat Capra pyrenaica, the

Alpine Ibex Capra ibex and the Eurasian beaver Castor fiber).

However, because trend information is not available for 40%

of species, the percentage of species in decline may actually be

considerably higher.

14

4.1 Status of Mediterranean mammals

The status of Mediterranean mammals was assessed at the

regional level according to the IUCN Red List Categories and

Criteria (IUCN 2001), the world’s most widely used system

for classifying species according to their extinction risk, and

the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at

Regional Levels (IUCN 2003). All native species except

cetaceans (whales and dolphins) were included. Overall,

one-sixth (16%) of the 298 mammal species covered in this

assessment were found to be threatened with extinction

in the Mediterranean2. Of that total, 3% were Critically

Endangered, 5% Endangered and 8% Vulnerable. A further

8% were considered Near Threatened, and 3% were already

Extinct or Regionally Extinct.

By comparison with other Mediterranean species groups

assessed to date, this is an intermediate level of threat. Previous

assessments have shown that 56% of Mediterranean endemic

freshwater fishes (Smith & Darwall 2006), 56% of dolphins

and whales (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006), 42%

of sharks and rays (Cavanagh & Gibson 2007), 36% of crabs

and crayfish (Cuttelod et al. 2008), 29% of amphibians (Cox

et al. 2006), 19% of dragonflies and damselflies (Riservato et

al. 2009), 13% of reptiles (Cox et al. 2006) and 5% of birds

(Cuttelod et al. 2008) are at risk of extinction.

Two small groups of mammals – odd-toed ungulates (Order

Perissodactyla; represented in the region by the African Wild

Ass and the Asiatic Wild Ass) and primates (Order Primates;

one species, the Barbary Macaque) – show extremely high

levels of threat with 100% of species threatened in each case.

Equally alarming is the status of the even-toed ungulates

(Order Cetartiodactyla), a well-known group including such

species as antelopes, ibex, and wild sheep and goats. Of the 25

species from this group that are native to the Mediterranean,

11 (44%) are threatened with extinction and a further 5 (20%)

are already extinct in the region. The threatened list includes

all except one of the antelope species found in the region.

Mediterranean carnivores and lagomorphs (rabbits and hares)

also show a very high proportion of species to be threatened

with extinction or already extinct.

Many of the threatened mammal species are endemic to the

region, highlighting the responsibility that Mediterranean

countries have to protect the entire global populations of these

species. Of the 49 threatened species, 20 (41%) are unique to

the region and occur nowhere else in the world.

4. Discussion

2 Excluding species assessed as Not Applicable.

4.2 E xtinctions

By comparison with other taxonomic groups covered in the

Mediterranean regional assessment (Cuttelod et al. 2008), a

relatively high proportion of Mediterranean mammal species

have been driven extinct or Regionally Extinct since 1500 A.D.

as a result of human activities. This stands as a warning of the

fate that may befall other Mediterranean mammals if effective

conservation actions are not urgently implemented.

One endemic Mediterranean mammal species, the Sardinian

Pika Prolagus sardus, is known to have gone extinct since

1500 A.D. It lived on the islands of Sardinia and Corsica until

its extinction, which probably occurred in the late 1700s or

early 1800s. It is thought that habitat loss, predation, and

competition with alien invasive species were responsible for its

extinction.

A further seven species (2.4% of the total number of species

assessed) have been extirpated from the Mediterranean as

a result of human activities and are considered Regionally

Extinct.

The Lion Panthera leo formerly ranged from northern Africa

through southwest Asia (where it disappeared from most

countries within the last 150 years), west into Europe, where

it apparently became extinct almost 2,000 years ago, and east

into India (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist

2002). Lions were driven to extinction in North Africa by

hunting and habitat loss; they perhaps survived in the High

Atlas Mountains up to the 1940s (Nowell and Jackson 1996,

West and Packer in press).

The Tiger Panthera tigris once ranged widely across Asia,

from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell

and Jackson, 1996), but over the past 100 years they have

disappeared from many areas and lost 93% of their historic

range (Sanderson et al. 2006). Tigers in the Mediterranean

region belonged to the extinct subspecies P. t. virgata (Caspian

Tiger). Caspian Tigers and their large ungulate prey were

found in the sparse forest habitats and riverine corridors west

(Turkey) and south (Iran) of the Caspian Sea and west through

Central Asia into Xinjiang, China (Nowell and Jackson 1996,

Abdukadir and Breitenmoser 2008). Their extinction can be

attributed to hunting of both tigers and their prey, habitat

loss and conversion, and increased vulnerability of small

populations (Sunquist et al. 1999). The last Caspian Tiger

was seen in the early 1970s, and there are none in captivity

15

The Iberian Wild Goat Capra pyrenaica is a species native to Spain and considered as Least Concern (LC). It is abundant in its range and currently expanding as a result of conservation

actions and habitat changes resulting from rural abandonment. Hunting reservations and protected areas have played a crucial role in this species’ recovery. Photograph © Pedro Regato.

(Nowell and Jackson 1996). The last definite record from the

Mediterranean region is from an individual killed in 1970 and

photographed in Uludere in Hakkari province (south-east

Turkey) (Baytop 1973).

Addax Addax nasomaculatus were formerly widespread in the

Sahelo-Saharan region of Africa, west of the Nile Valley, and

present in suitable habitats in all countries sharing the Sahara

Desert (including the Mediterranean countries of Egypt,

Libya, and Algeria) (Newby in press). As with other ungulates

of the Sahelo-Saharan fauna, the Addax has undergone an

unprecedented reduction in geographical range over the past

century as a result of hunting and habitat loss, and today the

only known remaining population survives in the Termit/Tin

Toumma region of Niger.

Hartebeest Alcelaphus buselaphus formerly ranged from North

Africa and the Middle East throughout the savannas, grasslands

and miombo woodlands of Africa down to the tip of southern

Africa. In North Africa, the Bubal Hartebeest (subspecies

A. b. buselaphus) occurred in Morocco, Algeria, southern

Tunisia, Libya, and parts of the Western Desert in Egypt (the

precise southern limits of distribution are not known). Bubal

Hartebeest are now Extinct, the last animals having been shot

between 1945 and 1954 in Algeria (De Smet 1989). The last

report from southern Morocco was possibly around 1945

(Panouse 1957).

The Scimitar-horned Oryx Oryx dammah was formerly

widespread across North Africa, at least in arid and Saharan

areas, but it is now Extinct in the Wild over all its range, and

Regionally Extinct in the Mediterranean. An estimated 500

Oryx survived at least until 1985 in Chad and Niger, but by

1988 only a few dozen individuals survived in the wild and

since then there have been no confirmed reports (Morrow in

press). Captive herds are kept in fenced protected areas in

Tunisia, Senegal and Morocco (Sous Massa National Park;

probably outside the known historical range) as part of longterm

reintroduction programmes. Overhunting and habitat

loss, including competition with domestic livestock, have been

reported as the main reasons for the extinction of the wild

population of Scimitar-horned Oryx (Mallon and Kingswood

2001, Devillers and Devillers-Terschuren 2005, Morrow in

press).

The Persian Fallow Deer Dama mesopotamica formerly

occurred in Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Occupied

Palestinian Territories, Syria and eastern Turkey (Hemami

16

and Rabiei 2002). By 1875 it was restricted to south-western

and western Iran, having disappeared from the rest of its

range. It was considered extinct, but a small population was

rediscovered in south-western Iran in 1956. The only surviving

indigenous wild populations are in Dez Wildlife Refuge and

Karkeh Wildlife Refuge in south-western Iran. There is a

small reintroduced population in Israel, but these animals are

hybrids with the European Fallow Deer D. dama. Poaching

and habitat destruction are two of the main threats that led to

the Persian Fallow Deer’s long decline and disappearance from

the Mediterranean region.

The Common Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius was

formerly found in Egypt, although it was already rare by the

time of the Renaissance. From the end of the Roman Empire

up until towards 1700 at the latest, the hippo was still present

in two disjunct zones in the Nile Delta and in the upper Nile.

Through the 1700s, records become increasingly scarce, and

the latest definite records are from the early 1800s (Manlius

2000). Common Hippos remain widespread in sub-Saharan

Africa, but they have undergone significant declines in recent

years as a result of illegal and unregulated hunting for meat and

ivory (found in the canine teeth) and habitat loss. These same

threats are probably responsible for the disappearance of the

species from the Mediterranean region.

The Red Gazelle Eudorcas rufina is listed in some sources as an

extinct species, but here it is classed as Data Deficient owing

to uncertainty about whether it is a valid species. The African

Wild Ass Equus africanus is considered to be extinct in the

Western Palaearctic by some authors (e.g., Aulagnier et al.

2008), but it is here listed as Critically Endangered as there

have not yet been exhaustive searches to confirm that the last

individuals have disappeared from the region; however it is

likely that this species is already extinct in the Mediterranean.

4.3 Major threats to Mediterranean

mammals

The most significant threat to mammals in the Mediterranean

region is the destruction and degradation of the ecosystems

and habitats on which they depend. Main causes of habitat

loss and degradation include expansion and intensification

of agriculture, urbanization, infrastructure development,

pollution and climate change.

Looking at the information on threats in more detail, it

becomes apparent that although there are many similarities

and common patterns that can be drawn, there are also some

important differences between different species of mammals

in terms of which threats are causing population declines and

consequently which kind of conservation measures need to be

put in place.

For bats, as for many mammal species, loss of natural and seminatural

foraging habitats is a major problem. Specifically, the

expansion and intensification of agricultural activities combined

The Long-eared Hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus is a solitary, nocturnal species that hibernates in winter and lives in burrows. It is listed as Least Concern (LC) in the Mediterranean

region. Photograph © Ahmet Karatas.

17

with poor land management practices has led to a significant

reduction in the amount of suitable foraging habitat, as well

as to declines in prey species (for example, insects, which have

decreased in abundance as a result of the widespread use of

insecticides). Destruction of riverside vegetation is a particular

problem, as many bat species forage along watercourses.

Many bat species congregate to roost and breed, in a variety of

sites (depending on the species) including caves, hollow trees

and buildings. The disturbance and destruction of roosting

and breeding sites has a negative impact on many species. This

disturbance and destruction can occur as a result of a variety of

human activities, for example:

■ Tourism and activities of speleologists in caves

■ Caves being used by herders (used as shelters for livestock

and lighting of fires)

■ Placing inappropriate gates across cave entrances

■ Wood treatment in roofs of buildings

■ Conversion of attics

■ Restoration of buildings and bridges

■ Removal of old trees from forests, parks and gardens

In addition to the loss, fragmentation and degradation of the

habitats they rely on, bats suffer direct mortality as a result of

deliberate persecution – they are sometimes considered as pests

and are killed by fruit farmers, or their colonies in buildings

are destroyed. In parts of the Mediterranean region, some

cave-dwelling species are still hunted for traditional medicinal

purposes. Mortality due to wind farms is an increasing threat.

For non-volant (flightless) small mammals, habitat loss is again

by far the most important threat. Species often depend upon

a specific habitat type, and consequently they are particularly

vulnerable to any change in land use that results in significant

change to that habitat. For example, many small mammals

depend upon open grassland or steppe habitats. These are under

threat in the Mediterranean region owing to a combination

of factors. In some areas, agricultural encroachment and

intensification is the main problem, as natural steppe grassland is

replaced by intensive arable fields. In other areas, the problem is

the abandonment of traditional non-intensive agriculture – land

that is no longer grazed or mowed rapidly undergoes succession

from open grassland to scrub, which is less suitable for a number

of small mammal species.

It is a general pattern that excessive use of pesticides and

insecticides is harmful to small mammal species, particularly

species that feed upon insects and other invertebrates and that

consequently may be accidentally poisoned as a result of eating

contaminated prey. Additionally, deliberate persecution may

cause localized declines, and some small mammal species are

hunted and eaten as food.

For large mammals (especially cats, canids, antelopes and

deer), habitat loss and degradation has significant negative

effects on many species, but is overtaken in importance by direct

mortality deliberately caused by humans – overexploitation,

poaching and persecution. In addition to deliberate killing and

capture, large mammals are accidentally killed (for example,

through indiscriminate and uncontrolled use of poisoned bait

or as a result of collision with cars). Habitat fragmentation is a

particular problem for large mammal species that depend upon

the availability of relatively large expanses of suitable habitat.

Competition with expanding numbers of domestic livestock is

another threat, as is the attendant habitat degradation through

overgrazing that livestock may cause.

Finally, an important threat to all mammal species in the region

is desertification and decreased availability of and access to water.

This is already a major problem in some drier areas, and its scope

and severity is set to increase in future as human populations

in the region continue to grow, as agriculture becomes more

intensive and demanding in terms of the amount of water used

for irrigation, and as the impacts of climate change increase.

4.4 Protection of habitats and species in

the Mediterranean

At the international level, Mediterranean countries are signatories

to a number of important conventions aimed at conserving

biodiversity that have particular relevance for mammals, including

the 1979 Bern Convention on the Conservation of European

Wildlife and Natural Habitats, the 1979 Bonn Convention

on Migratory Species, the 1995 Barcelona Convention for the

Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region

of the Mediterranean and, most importantly, the 1992 Rio

Convention on Biological Diversity.

The Bern Convention supports the conservation and sustainable

use of species and habitats. The Convention is a binding legal

treaty covering the majority of states considered to belong to

the Mediterranean region for the purposes of this assessment,

including North African countries and Turkey. Considerable

work has been undertaken within the Convention for the

protection of mammal species, especially large carnivores. Apart

from numerous workshops and seminars, the Convention has

adopted recommendations and developed Action Plans for

certain species (e.g., certain large carnivore and bat species).

Under the framework of the Convention on Migratory Species

(CMS), there are several key regional agreements or initiatives

for mammals:

■ Conservation of populations of European Bats

(EUROBATS)

■ Conservation of the Cetaceans of the Mediterranean Sea,

Black Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS)

■ Conservation of Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes

Under the Barcelona Convention, specific Action Plans

have been developed for Mediterranean cetaceans and the

Mediterranean Monk Seal.

18

Mediterranean countries have committed themselves to a more

effective and coherent implementation of the three objectives

of the Convention on Biological Diversity. More specifically,

they have made the important commitment “to achieve by

2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity

loss at the global, regional and national level as a contribution

to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”.

European countries and the EU have gone even further, with a

commitment to halt the loss of biodiversity within Europe by

2010. This means that population declines should be stemmed

and ideally reversed, and that extinctions should be prevented.

This assessment indicates that a large number of species show a

long term decline, with a proportion of threatened species that

exceeds levels identified for other Mediterranean species groups

such as reptiles and birds. Nine Mediterranean mammals are

Critically Endangered, standing on the brink of regional or

even global extinction. On the basis of this evidence, it seems

unlikely that the 2010 target will be met, and a significant

increase in conservation activity and investment is needed to

ensure that rates of biodiversity loss are reduced in future.

4.5 A nthropochorous taxa and

conservation priorities

Anthropochorous taxa have been defined as “introduced

populations that have been formally described taxonomically”

(Gippoliti and Amori 2002). The Mediterranean Basin, one of

the 34 global biodiversity hotspots recognized by Mittermeier et

al. (2004), probably has more anthropochorous taxa than any

other part of the world (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Human

civilizations have been continually present in this region for at

least 9,000 years, causing widespread damage and destruction of

natural habitats, and intentionally or unintentionally transporting

animals and plants between different island and mainland

locations. Mediterranean islands once were home to an array of

unique endemic mammals, including dwarf elephants and hippos

(Kotsakis 1990, Vigne 1992, Palombo 1996), but in part as a

result of human activities almost all of these endemic mammal

species are now extinct (Vigne et al. 1997, Simmons 1999,

Gippoliti and Amori 2006), and it has been contended that as

few as three ancient endemic species still survive (two shrews and

one mouse: Gippoliti and Amori 2006). The modern mammal

fauna of Mediterranean islands consists largely of populations

introduced in ancient or modern times by man, although some

of these populations have been isolated for so long that they are

phenotypically distinct from mainland forms and have been

recognized at the subspecific or even specific level. Two examples

of anthropochorous taxa found on Mediterranean islands are

the agrimi and the mouflon. These taxa are listed on Annexes

II and IV of the Habitats Directive (consequently requiring

strict protection and the designation of protected areas), under

the names “Capra aegagrus (natural populations)”, “Ovis gmelini

musimon (Ovis ammon musimon) (natural populations – Corsica

and Sardinia)”, and Ovis orientalis ophion (Ovis gmelini ophion).

A number of genetic and archaeozoological studies suggest that

they are feral populations of ancient domestic livestock (e.g.,

Groves 1989, Vigne 1994, Hiendleder et al. 1998, Manceau et

al. 1999, Kahila bar-Gal et al. 2002), and should be included

in the respective domestic species (Gentry et al. 1996, Gentry

et al. 2004), although this view is not universally accepted. By

contrast, two out of the three Mediterranean island species

identified as genuine palaeoendemics by Gippoliti and Amori

(2006), namely Crocidura zimmermanni and Mus cypriacus, are

not listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes.

There has been a historical tendency in the Mediterranean region

and worldwide for conservation interventions to focus on large

mammals and birds. In some areas, including the Mediterranean

(which, it should be remembered, qualifies as a hotspot as a

consequence of the high endemism of its vascular plants and

the high rate of habitat loss), there is evidence to suggest that a

The European mink Mustela lutreola is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) due to an ongoing

population reduction caused by habitat loss and the effects of introduced species. There is

considerable uncertainty about the numbers remaining today and further research is necessary

to assess the current population status and rate of decline. Photograph © Tiit Maran.

19

disproportionate focus on large mammal conservation may have

a detrimental effect on other biodiversity values (see Gippoliti

and Amori 2004, 2006 and references therein for examples). For

example, mouflon continue to be introduced to Mediterranean

islands (including protected areas) because they are considered

typical of the region (Gippoliti and Amori 2006), even though

there is evidence that overgrazing has a significant negative

impact on native plants (Fabbri 1966, Greuter 1979, Gippoliti

and Amori 2004), and many small Mediterranean islands are

regarded as conservation priorities because of the lack of antigrazing

adaptations in the endemic plants (Greuter 2001). It is

important that any conservation strategy aimed at maintaining

biodiversity and its evolutionary potential takes into account

the history (including recent history) of the regional biota, and

makes an effort: (1) to identify and direct attention towards

ancient endemic species that escaped previous extinction events

and are the repository of unique phylogenetic information; and

(2) to strike an appropriate balance between conserving large,

charismatic mammals (that may in some cases be relatively

recent additions to the regional fauna) and protecting other

forms of native biodiversity.

4.6 Conservation measures needed

Species frequently require a combination of conservation

responses to ensure their continued survival. These responses

include legislation, monitoring, research, management of

populations, restoration of balance between prey/predator

populations, habitat conservation and restoration, land

acquisition and management, and even captive breeding and

benign introductions for some of the Mediterranean region’s

most threatened mammal species. For species threatened across

their range, limited or local actions are unlikely to be sufficiently

strong or coherent to prevent extinction, and coordinated

action is required at the regional level. Although this Red List

assessment focused on the status of individual species, effective

conservation action needs to focus not just on species but also

on sites in the wider landscape, considering the heterogeneous

and dynamic nature of large territories on which the survival

of species depends (the ability to meet species requirements

inside and outside protected areas, among different land uses,

integrating use and protection across the landscape). In this

way, efforts to protect Mediterranean mammals can benefit all

Mediterranean species.

As discussed in Section 4.3, a variety of threatening processes

are driving species decline and extinction, and the relative

importance of these threats varies across different taxa

(although there are some important commonalities such as the

primary role of habitat loss and degradation in causing species

decline). Consequently, the specific conservation measures to

be recommended vary between different species and groups of

species. The following text gives further detail on the types of

measures that are required. This list is by no means exhaustive;

further information on the conservation needs of particular

species and taxonomic groups (e.g. canids) can be found in

the “Conservation Actions” section of each individual species

factsheet3, in the series of Conservation Action Plans produced

by IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Specialist Groups4,

and in the Action Plans produced under the Bern Convention

for certain priority species in the region.

3 Available online at www.iucnredlist.org

4 IUCN SSC Conservation Action Plans have been produced for a wide range of Mediterranean species and are freely available for download from the

following website, where a complete list can be found: www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/publications___technical_documents/publications/

species_actions_plans/

20

For bats, the main recommendations on the conservation

measures needed are to improve the legal protection

framework – all bat species should be legally protected

in the Mediterranean region – and to better enforce the

existing legislation, for example on the illegal destruction of

roosts sites. Another major conservation need relates to the

encouragement of more environmentally friendly practices, in

particular in agriculture – promoting organic farming (or at

least a limited use of pesticides), maintaining old trees, and

preserving riparian vegetation, hedgerows and linear habitats

to promote connectivity – but also when restoring buildings,

through taking into consideration bats’ requirements and using

non-toxic chemicals for treating timber in roofs. Additionally,

dispelling myths about bats and increasing awareness of their

ecological importance would improve the image of these species

and be a first step towards stopping their persecution. Further

research is needed on a number of issues including habitat and

foraging requirements, population size and trends, impacts of

pesticide use on prey species (such as locusts), and methods to

minimize impacts of wind farms; such research would help in

targeting conservation actions more effectively.

For non-volant (flightless) small mammals more sustainable

agricultural practices are again needed, especially in temperate

grassland (steppe) habitats, to prevent habitat loss and

degradation both from agricultural intensification and land

abandonment. Specific legislation and enforcement of existing

measures is needed to prevent the introduction of alien invasive

species (as pets or for commercial purposes), as several wellknown

cases such as that of the American Mink Neovison

vison have demonstrated the negative impacts of such imports.

Conservation actions should also be aimed at actively raising

public awareness of the diversity, importance and threats to

small mammals in order to modify their “pest” image and

explain their ecological importance. As a number of non-volant

small mammals are associated with freshwater ecosystems,

measures targeted towards water management (groundwater

extraction, artificial banks, dam construction, etc.) should take

into consideration the ecological requirements of these species.

Finally, further research should be encouraged, including on

taxonomy which remains poorly resolved for a number of

species.

For large mammals, recommendations include the

improvement of management of protected areas (especially

through well-trained, empowered and motivated staff) and of

the wider environment to ensure that it is wildlife-friendly and

that connectivity between different populations of the same

The Edible Dormouse Glis glis is widely distributed from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe and assessed as Least Concern (LC) in the Mediterranean region. This

species was traditionally hunted for subsistence and trade. Photograph © Boris Krystufek.

21

The Middle East Blind Mole Rat Spalax ehrenbergi is considered as Data Deficient (DD). It inhabits dry steppes, semi-desert and cultivated fields in coastal north-east Libya and central

coastal Egypt. It is widespread in the eastern Mediterranean and ranges north into Turkey. Photograph © Boris Krystufek.

species are ensured (for example through corridors). Illegal,

uncontrolled, or inadequately regulated hunting is a major

problem that has already driven a number of large mammal

species to extinction or near-extinction in the Mediterranean

region – better enforcement of existing laws and regulations

is needed to counter this threat and new legislation may be

required in some cases. Several legislative frameworks are

addressing large mammals, but efforts should be made to

improve the enforcement of these agreements. Species-specific

management plans (including the reintroduction of animals

in the wild, following IUCN Guidelines for Re-Introductions

(IUCN 1998)) have proven to be powerful tools. Additional

field studies and monitoring are also needed, in particular in

North Africa and the Middle East.

Restoring habitats and wild prey populations at the landscape

level is a key component for the conservation of threatened

large carnivores, requiring significant efforts in trans-boundary

cooperation. In the case of large herbivores spatial planning,

policy and management efforts for the maintenance of managed

grazing systems (i.e. preventing rural abandonment and the

conversion of grasslands into scrubland) and the altitudinal

gradient of habitat requirements is a key conservation measure.

Furthermore, education and public involvement programmes

among national, regional or local governmental officials (and

also among the general public) are needed to raise awareness on

the value and best practice for management of large mammals.

Large carnivores are very controversial from both a social and

an economic standpoint (many people feel frightened by

wolves and bears, and large carnivores are frequently blamed for

killing livestock), and therefore their conservation is as much a

socio-political issue as a biological one. Understanding people’s

attitudes towards predators and gaining their acceptance

is crucial to the success of conservation and management

programmes. Innovative ways to manage livestock and

compensation payments to cover farmers’ losses may be a

useful means of gaining local people’s acceptance about the

current trend of natural re-colonization of large carnivores over

large territories in northern Mediterranean countries. Tourism

is a growing activity which, when properly managed, has a high

potential to raise awareness and demonstrate socio-economic

benefits of the maintenance of the large mammal populations

that are iconic features of the Mediterranean region’s rich and

beautiful landscapes.

22

Abdukadir, A. and Breitenmoser, U. 2008. The last tigers of

Xinjiang. Cat News 47: 26-27.

Aulagnier S., Haffner P., Mitchell-Jones A.J., Moutou F. & Zima

J. 2008. Guide des mammifères d’Europe, d’Afrique du Nord et

du Moyen-Orient. Delachaux et Niestlé, Paris, 271 p.

Baytop, T. (1973) La presence du vrai tigre (Panthera tigris) en

Turquie. Saugetierk. Mitte.22: 254-256.

Blue Plan. 2008. The Blue Plan´s Sustainable Development

Outlook for the Mediterranean. UNEP Blue Plan Activity

Centre, Sophia Antipolis, France.

Bonhomme, F., Orth, A., Cucchi, T., Hadjisterkotis, E., Vigne,

J.-D. and Auffray, J.-C. 2004. Découverte d’une nouvelle

espèce de souris sur l’île de Chypre. Comptes Rendus

Biologies, 327: 501–507.

Cavanagh, R.D. and Gibson, C. 2007. Overview of the

Conservation Status of Cartilaginous Fishes (Chondrichthyans)

in the Mediterranean Sea. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and

Malaga, Spain.

Cox, N., Chanson, J. and Stuart, S. (Compilers) 2006. The

Status and Distribution of Reptiles and Amphibians of the

Mediterranean Basin. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and

Cambridge, UK. vii + 51 pp.

Cucchi, T., Orth, A., Auffray, J.-C, Renaud, S., Fabre, L.,

Ctalan, J., Hadjisterkotis, E., Bonhomme, F. and Vigne,

J.-D. 2006. A new endemic species of the subgenus Mus

(Rodentia, Mammalia) on the Island of Cyprus. Zootaxa

1241: 1–36.

Cuttelod, A., García, N., Abdul Malak, D., Temple, H. & Katariya,

V. 2008. The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under

threat. In: J.-C. Vié, C. Hilton-Taylor and S.N. Stuart (eds).

Wildlife in a Changing World: An analysis of the 2008 IUCN

Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Gland, Switzerland.

Devillers, P. and Devillers-Terschuren, J. 2005. Oryx dammah.

In: R. C. Beudels, P. Devillers, R. M. Lafontaine, J. Devillers-

Terschuren and M. O. Beudels. Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes.

Status and Perspectives. Report on the conservation status

of the six Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes. CMS SSA Concerted

Action. 2nd edition. CMS Technical Series Publication

N°11, 2005. UNEP/CMS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany.

Fabbri, F. 1966. Per una più equilibrata protezione naturalistica

dell’isola di Montecristo. Natura e Montagna, 6, 126–135.

Gentry, A., Clutton-Brock, J. and Groves, P. 1996. Case 3010.

Proposed conservation of usage of 15 mammal specific

names based on wild species which are antedated by or

contemporary with those based on domestic animals. Bull.

Zool. Nomenclature 53: 28–37.

Gentry, A., Clutton-Brock, J. and Groves, C.P. 2004. The

naming of wild animal species and their domestic

derivatives. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 645–651.

Gippoliti, S. and Amori, G. 2002. Anthropochorous mammal taxa

and conservation lists. Conservation Biology, 16: 1162–1164.

Gippoliti, S. and Amori, G. 2004. Mediterranean island

mammals: are they a priority for biodiversity conservation?

Biogeographia, 25, 135–144.

Gippoliti, S. and Amori, G. 2006. Ancient introductions of

mammals in the Mediterranean Basin and their implications

for conservation. Mammal Rev. 36: 37–48.

Greuter, W. 1979. Mediterranean conservation as viewed by a

plant taxonomist. Webbia, 34, 87–99.

Greuter, W. 2001. Diversity of Mediterranean floras. Bocconea

13: 55–64.

Groves, C.P. 1989. Feral mammals of the Mediterranean islands:

documents of early domestication. In: J. Clutton-Brock (ed.)

The Walking Larder, pp. 46–58. Unwin-Hyman, London.

Hemami, M. R. and Rabiei, A. 2002. The conservation of Persian

Fallow Deer (Dama dama mesopotamica). 5th International

Deer Biology Congress, Conference Proceedings, 43.

Hiendleder, S., Mainz, K., Plante, Y. and Lewalski, H. 1998.

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicates that domestic

sheep are derived from two different ancestral maternal

sources: no evidence for contributions from urial and argali

sheep. Journal of Heredity, 89: 113–120.

IUCN 1998. IUCN Guidelines for Re-introductions. IUCN/SSC

Re-introduction Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, 20 pp.

IUCN. 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version

3.1. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland,

Switzerland.

IUCN. 2003. Guidelines for application of IUCN Red List

Criteria at Regional Levels: Version 3.0. IUCN Species

Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Kahila Bar-Gal, G., Smith, P., Tchernov, E., Greenblatt, C.,

Ducos, P., Gardeisen, A. and Horwitz, L.K. 2002. Genetic

evidence of the origin of the agrimi goat (Capra aegagrus

cretica). Journal of Zoology London, 256: 369–377.

Kotsakis, T. 1990. Insular and non insular vertebrate faunas

in the Eastern Mediterranean islands. Atti Convegni Lincei,

85, 289–334.

Mallon, D. P. and Kingswood, S. C. 2001. Antelopes. Part 4:

North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Global Survey and

Regional Action Plans. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Manceau, V., Després, L., Bouvet, J. and Taberlet, P. 1999.

Systematics of the genus Capra inferred from Mitochondrial

DNA sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,

13, 504–510.

Manlius, N. 2000. Biogéographie et Ecologie historique de

l’hippopotame en Egypte. Belgian Journal of Zoology 130:

59-66.

Mittermeier, R.A., Robles-Gil, P., Hoffmann, M., Pilgrim,

J.D., Brooks, T.M., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J.L.

& Fonseca, G. (eds). 2004. Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s

Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Ecoregions. Second

Edition. Cemex, Mexico.

References

23

Morrow, C. M. in press. Oryx dammah. In: J. S. Kingdon

and M. Hoffmann. The Mammals of Africa 6. Pigs, Deer,

Giraffe, Bovids, and Hippos. Academic Press, Amsterdam,

The Netherlands.

Mucedda, M., Kiefer, A., Pidinchedda, E. and Veith, M. 2002. A

new species of long-eared bat (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae)

from Sardinia (Italy). Acta Chiropterologica 4: 121–135.

Newby, J. in press. Addax nasomaculatus. In: J. S. Kingdon and

M. Hoffmann (eds.) The Mammals of Africa 6. Pigs, Deer,

Giraffe, Bovids, and Hippos. Academic Press, Amsterdam,

The Netherlands.

Nowak, R.M. 1999. Walker’s Mammals of the World. The John

Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.

Nowell, K. and Jackson, P. 1996. Wild Cats. Status Survey

and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland and

Cambridge, UK .

Palombo, M.R. 1996. Large Pleistocene mammals of the

Mediterranean islands. Vie et Milieu, 46: 365–374.

Panouse, J. B. 1957. Les Mammiferes du Maroc. Travaux de

l’Institut Scientifique Cherifen, Série Zoologique 5: 1-206.

Reeves, R. and Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. (compilers and

editors). 2006. The Status and Distribution of Cetaceans

in the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea. IUCN Centre for

Mediterranean Cooperation, Malaga, Spain.

Riservato, E., Boudot, J.-P., Feirrera, S., Jovic, M., Kalkman,

V.J., Schneider, W. and Samraoui, B. 2009. The Status

and Distribution of Dragonflies of the Mediterranean Basin.

IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Malaga, Spain.

Sanderson, E., Forrest, J., Loucks, C., Ginsberg, J.,

Dinerstein, E., Seidensticker, J., Leimgruber, P., Songer,

M., Heydlauff, A., O’Brien, T., Bryja, G., Klenzendorf,

S, and Wikramanayake, E.. 2006. Setting Priorities for

the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005-2015.

The Technical Assessment. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian, and

NFWF-STF, New York and Washington, DC, USA.

Schipper J., Chanson J.S., Chiozza F., Cox N.A., Hoffmann

M., Katariya V., Lamoreux J., Rodrigues A.S.L., Stuart

S.N., Temple H.J. et al. 2008. The status of the world’s land

and marine mammals: diversity, threat, and knowledge.

Science 322: 225-230.

Simmons, A.H. 1999. Faunal Extinction in an Island Society:

Pygmy Hippopotamus Hunters of Cyprus. Kluwer Academic,

New York.

Smet, K., de. 1989. The distribution and habitat choice of

larger mammals in Algeria, with special reference to nature

protection. Ph.D. thesis. University of Ghent, Belgium.

Smith, K.G. and Darwall, W.R.T. (compilers). 2006. The

Status and Distribution of Freshwater Fish Endemic to the

Mediterranean Basin. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and

Cambridge, UK.

Sunquist, M. and Sunquist, F. 2002. Wild Cats of the World.

University of Chicago Press .

Sunquist, M. E., Karanth, K. U. and Sunquist, F.

1999. Ecology, behaviour and resilience of the tiger and

its conservation needs. In: J. Seidensticker, S. Christie

and P. Jackson (eds.) Riding the Tiger: Tiger conservation in

human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, UK.

Temple H.J. and Terry A. 2007. The status and distribution

of European mammals. Luxembourg: Office for Official

Publications of the European Communities.

Vigne, J.D. 1992. Zooarchaeological and biogeographical

history of the mammals of Corsica and Sardinia since the

last ice age. Mammal Review, 22 87–96.

Vigne, J.D. 1994. Les transferts anciens de mammifères en

Europe occidentale: histoires, mécanismes et implications

dans les sciences de l’homme et les sciences de la vie. Colloq.

Hist. Connaissances Zoolog. 5: 15–37.

Vigne, J.D., Bailon, S. and Cuisin, J. 1997. Biostratigraphy

of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals in Corsica

and the role of man in the Holocene faunal turnover.

Anthropozoologica, 25/26, 587–604.

West, P. M. and Packer, C. in press. Panthera leo. In: J. S.

Kingdon and M. Hoffmann (eds.) The Mammals of Africa

5. Carnivores, Pangolins, Rhinos and Equids. Academic Press,

Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (eds). 2005. Mammal Species

of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2,142 pp.

Available online at http://nmnhgoph.si.edu/msw/.

World Bank. 2006. Key development data and statistics.

Downloaded on August 25, 2008, from http://web.

worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTIC

S/0,,contentMDK:20535285~menuPK:1192694~pagePK:

64133150~piPK:64133175~theSite PK:239419,00.html.

24

Order Family Scientific name

IUCN Red

List Category

(Mediterranean)*

IUCN Red List

Criteria

Endemic

to the

region?

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Canis aureus Least Concern

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Canis lupus Least Concern

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Lycaon pictus Critically Endangered C2a(i);D

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes cana Vulnerable D1

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes rueppellii Least Concern

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes vulpes Least Concern

CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes zerda Least Concern

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Acinonyx jubatus Endangered D

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Caracal caracal Near Threatened

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Felis chaus Data Deficient

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Felis margarita Near Threatened

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Felis silvestris Least Concern

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Leptailurus serval Critically Endangered C2a(i)

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx lynx Endangered C2a(i)

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx pardinus Critically Endangered C2a(i) Yes

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera leo Regionally Extinct A2abcd

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera pardus Critically Endangered C2a(i)

CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera tigris Regionally Extinct A2bcd+4bcd;

C1+2a(i)

CARNIVORA HERPESTIDAE Herpestes ichneumon Least Concern

CARNIVORA HERPESTIDAE Ichneumia albicauda Not Applicable

CARNIVORA HYAENIDAE Hyaena hyaena Vulnerable C1

CARNIVORA HYAENIDAE Proteles cristata Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Ictonyx libyca Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Lutra lutra Near Threatened

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Martes foina Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Martes martes Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Meles meles Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mellivora capensis Near Threatened

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela erminea Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela eversmanii Not Applicable

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela lutreola Critically Endangered A2ce

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela nivalis Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela putorius Least Concern

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela subpalmata Least Concern Yes

CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Vormela peregusna Vulnerable A2c

CARNIVORA PHOCIDAE Monachus monachus Critically Endangered A2abc;C2a(i);E

CARNIVORA URSIDAE Ursus arctos Vulnerable C2a(i)

CARNIVORA VIVERRIDAE Genetta genetta Least Concern

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Addax nasomaculatus Regionally Extinct A2cd;C1+2a(ii)

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Alcelaphus buselaphus Regionally Extinct

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ammotragus lervia Vulnerable C1

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra aegagrus Vulnerable A2cd

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra ibex Least Concern

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra nubiana Vulnerable C1+2a(i)

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra pyrenaica Least Concern Yes

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Eudorcas rufina Data Deficient

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella cuvieri Endangered C2a(i) Yes

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella dorcas Endangered A2cd

Appendix 1. Red List status of

Mediterranean Mammals

25

Order Family Scientific name

IUCN Red

List Category

(Mediterranean)*

IUCN Red List

Criteria

Endemic

to the

region?

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella gazella Vulnerable A1abd

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella leptoceros Endangered C2a(i)

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella subgutturosa Critically Endangered C2a(i)

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Nanger dama Critically Endangered C2a(i);D

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx dammah Regionally Extinct

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx leucoryx Endangered D

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ovis orientalis Endangered B2ab(iii,v)

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Rupicapra pyrenaica Least Concern Yes

CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Rupicapra rupicapra Least Concern

CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Capreolus capreolus Least Concern

CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Cervus elaphus Least Concern

CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Dama dama Least Concern Yes

CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Dama mesopotamica Regionally Extinct D

CETARTIODACTYLA HIPPOPOTAMIDAE Hippopotamus

amphibius

Regionally Extinct

CETARTIODACTYLA SUIDAE Sus scrofa Least Concern

CHIROPTERA EMBALLONURIDAE Taphozous nudiventris Least Concern

CHIROPTERA EMBALLONURIDAE Taphozous perforatus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA HIPPOSIDERIDAE Asellia tridens Least Concern

CHIROPTERA HIPPOSIDERIDAE Hipposideros caffer Data Deficient

CHIROPTERA MOLOSSIDAE Tadarida aegyptiaca Least Concern

CHIROPTERA MOLOSSIDAE Tadarida teniotis Least Concern

CHIROPTERA NYCTERIDAE Nycteris thebaica Data Deficient

CHIROPTERA PTEROPODIDAE Rousettus aegyptiacus Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus blasii Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus clivosus Data Deficient

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus euryale Vulnerable A2ac

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus

ferrumequinum

Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus

hipposideros

Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus mehelyi Vulnerable A4c

CHIROPTERA RHINOPOMATIDAE Rhinopoma

hardwickii

Least Concern

CHIROPTERA RHINOPOMATIDAE Rhinopoma

microphyllum

Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Barbastella

barbastellus

Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Barbastella leucomelas Not Applicable

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Eptesicus bottae Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Eptesicus nilssonii Not Applicable

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Eptesicus serotinus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Miniopterus

schreibersii

Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis alcathoe Data Deficient

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis aurascens Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis bechsteinii Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis blythii Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis brandtii Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis capaccinii Vulnerable A4bce

26

Order Family Scientific name

IUCN Red

List Category

(Mediterranean)*

IUCN Red List

Criteria

Endemic

to the

region?

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis dasycneme Not Applicable

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis daubentonii Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis emarginatus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis myotis Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis mystacinus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis nattereri Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis nipalensis Not Applicable

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis punicus Near Threatened Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis schaubi Data Deficient

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus azoreum Endangered B1ab(iii) Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus lasiopterus Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus leisleri Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus noctula Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nycticeinops

schlieffeni

Not Applicable

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Otonycteris

hemprichii

Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus ariel Data Deficient

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus deserti Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus hanaki Data Deficient Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus kuhlii Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus maderensis Endangered B1ab(iii,v) Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus nathusii Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus pipistrellus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus pygmaeus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus rueppellii Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus savii Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus auritus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus austriacus Least Concern

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus christii Data Deficient

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus kolombatovici Least Concern Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus macrobullaris Near Threatened

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus sardus Vulnerable B2ab(iii) Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus teneriffae Endangered B1ab(v) Yes

CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Vespertilio murinus Not Applicable

EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Atelerix algirus Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Erinaceus concolor Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Erinaceus europaeus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Erinaceus roumanicus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Hemiechinus auritus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Paraechinus

aethiopicus

Data Deficient

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura aleksandrisi Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura arispa Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura canariensis Endangered B1ab(ii,iii) Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura floweri Data Deficient Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura katinka Data Deficient

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura leucodon Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura lusitania Not Applicable

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura olivieri Not Applicable

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura pachyura Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura pasha Not Applicable

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura ramona Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura religiosa Data Deficient Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura russula Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura sicula Least Concern Yes

27

Order Family Scientific name

IUCN Red

List Category

(Mediterranean)*

IUCN Red List

Criteria

Endemic

to the

region?

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura suaveolens Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura tarfayensis Data Deficient

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura viaria Not Applicable

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura whitakeri Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura

zimmermanni

Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,v)

+2ab(i,ii,v)

Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Neomys anomalus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Neomys fodiens Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Neomys teres Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex alpinus Near Threatened

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex antinorii Data Deficient Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex araneus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex arunchi Data Deficient Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex coronatus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex granarius Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex minutus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex raddei Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex samniticus Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex satunini Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex volnuchini Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Suncus etruscus Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Galemys pyrenaicus Vulnerable A2ac+3c+4ac Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa caeca Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa caucasica Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa davidiana Data Deficient

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa europaea Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa levantis Least Concern

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa occidentalis Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa romana Least Concern Yes

EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa stankovici Least Concern Yes

HYRACOIDEA PROCAVIIDAE Procavia capensis Least Concern

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus capensis Least Concern

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus castroviejoi Vulnerable B1ab(iii)

+2ab(iii)

Yes

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus corsicanus Vulnerable A2bcde+3bcde Yes

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus europaeus Least Concern

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus granatensis Least Concern Yes

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus microtis Not Applicable

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus timidus Least Concern

LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Oryctolagus cuniculus Near Threatened Yes

LAGOMORPHA PROLAGIDAE Prolagus sardus Extinct Yes

MACROSCELIDEA MACROSCELIDIDAE Elephantulus rozeti Least Concern Yes

PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus africanus Critically Endangered

PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus hemionus Endangered D

PRIMATES CERCOPITHECIDAE Macaca sylvanus Endangered A2bcd+4bcd Yes

RODENTIA CALOMYSCIDAE Calomyscus bailwardi Data Deficient

RODENTIA CALOMYSCIDAE Calomyscus tsolovi Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA CASTORIDAE Castor fiber Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola amphibius Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola sapidus Vulnerable A2ace+4ace Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola scherman Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Chionomys gud Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Chionomys nivalis Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Chionomys roberti Data Deficient

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Cricetulus migratorius Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Cricetus cricetus Not Applicable

28

Order Family Scientific name

IUCN Red

List Category

(Mediterranean)*

IUCN Red List

Criteria

Endemic

to the

region?

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Dinaromys bogdanovi Vulnerable B2ab(i,ii,iv) Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Ellobius lutescens Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus auratus Vulnerable B1ab(iii) Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus brandti Near Threatened

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus newtoni Near Threatened

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus agrestis Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus anatolicus Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus arvalis Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus brachycercus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus cabrerae Near Threatened Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus

daghestanicus

Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus dogramacii Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus

duodecimcostatus

Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus felteni Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus gerbei Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus guentheri Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus levis Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus liechtensteini Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus lusitanicus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus majori Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus multiplex Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus savii Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus schidlovskii Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus socialis Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus subterraneus Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus thomasi Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Myodes glareolus Least Concern

RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Prometheomys

schaposchnikowi

Vulnerable D2

RODENTIA CTENODACTYLIDAE Ctenodactylus gundi Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA CTENODACTYLIDAE Ctenodactylus vali Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA CTENODACTYLIDAE Massoutiera mzabi Least Concern

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga elater Not Applicable

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga euphratica Near Threatened

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga tetradactyla Vulnerable B2ab(iii) Yes

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga williamsi Near Threatened

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Jaculus jaculus Least Concern

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Jaculus orientalis Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Sicista subtilis Not Applicable

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Dryomys laniger Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Dryomys nitedula Least Concern

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Eliomys melanurus Least Concern

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Eliomys munbyanus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Eliomys quercinus Least Concern

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Glis glis Least Concern

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Muscardinus

avellanarius

Least Concern

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Myomimus roachi Vulnerable B2ab(iii) Yes

RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Myomimus setzeri Data Deficient

RODENTIA HYSTRICIDAE Hystrix cristata Least Concern

RODENTIA HYSTRICIDAE Hystrix indica Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys airensis Not Applicable

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys cahirinus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys cilicicus Data Deficient Yes

29

Order Family Scientific name

IUCN Red

List Category

(Mediterranean)*

IUCN Red List

Criteria

Endemic

to the

region?

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys dimidiatus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys minous Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys nesiotes Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys russatus Data Deficient

RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys seurati Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus agrarius Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus alpicola Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus epimelas Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus flavicollis Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus mystacinus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus sylvaticus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus uralensis Not Applicable

RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus witherbyi Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Arvicanthis niloticus Not Applicable

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus amoenus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus andersoni Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus campestris Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus cheesmani Not Applicable

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus dasyurus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus floweri Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus gerbillus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus grobbeni Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus henleyi Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hesperinus Endangered B1ab(iii)

+2ab(iii)

Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hoogstraali Vulnerable B1b(iii)c(iv) Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus jamesi Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus latastei Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus

mackillingini

Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus maghrebi Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus

mesopotamiae

Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus nanus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus occiduus Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus perpallidus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus pyramidum Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus simoni Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus tarabuli Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Lemniscomys barbarus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Mastomys

erythroleucus

Not Applicable

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones crassus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones dahli Endangered B1ab(iii)

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones grandis Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones libycus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones persicus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones sacramenti Vulnerable B1ab(iii) Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones shawi Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones tristrami Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones vinogradovi Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Micromys minutus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus cypriacus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus macedonicus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus musculus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus spicilegus Least Concern

30

Order Family Scientific name

IUCN Red

List Category

(Mediterranean)*

IUCN Red List

Criteria

Endemic

to the

region?

RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus spretus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Nesokia indica Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Pachyuromys duprasi Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Psammomys obesus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Psammomys vexillaris Data Deficient Yes

RODENTIA MURIDAE Sekeetamys calurus Least Concern

RODENTIA MURIDAE Tatera indica Not Applicable

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Atlantoxerus getulus Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Marmota marmota Least Concern

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Sciurus anomalus Least Concern

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Sciurus vulgaris Least Concern

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus citellus Vulnerable A2bc

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus

taurensis

Least Concern Yes

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus

xanthoprymnus

Near Threatened

RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Xerus erythropus Not Applicable

RODENTIA SPALACIDAE Spalax ehrenbergi Data Deficient

RODENTIA SPALACIDAE Spalax leucodon Data Deficient

RODENTIA SPALACIDAE Spalax nehringi Data Deficient

* Species were considered to be Not Applicable (NA) if they were introduced after 1500 A.D. or if they were considered to be of marginal occurrence in the

region. Species were considered to be of marginal occurrence if it was estimated that less than 1% of their global population occurs in the Mediterranean

region. In the absence of population data, terrestrial species were considered of marginal occurrence if less than 1% of their range lies within the region.

Native species of marginal occurrence are listed in the table above; introduced species assessed as Not Applicable are listed in Appendix 2.

31

Appendix 2. Introduced species

assessed as Not Applicable (NA)

in the Mediterranean region

Order Genus Species Status Justification

Carnivora Herpestes auropunctatus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Carnivora Neovison vison NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Carnivora Nyctereutes procyonoides NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Carnivora Procyon lotor NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Cetartiodactyla Axis axis NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Cetartiodactyla Cervus nippon NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Cetartiodactyla Hydropotes inermis NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Cetartiodactyla Odocoileus virginianus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Lagomorpha Sylvilagus floridanus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Rodentia Callosciurus erythraeus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Rodentia Callosciurus finlaysonii NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Rodentia Myocastor coypus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Rodentia Ondatra zibethicus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Rodentia Rattus norvegicus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

Rodentia Sciurus carolinensis NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.

* This list may be incomplete.

32

Data were analyzed using a geodesic discrete global grid system,

defined on an icosahedron and projected to the sphere using

the inverse Icosahedral Snyder Equal Area (ISEA) Projection

(S39). This corresponds to a hexagonal grid composed of

individual units (cells) that retain their shape and area (~22,300

km2) throughout the globe. These are more suitable for a range

of ecological applications than the most commonly used

rectangular grids (S40).

The range of each species was converted to the hexagonal grid

for analysis purposes. Coastal cells were clipped to the coastline.

Appendix 3. Methodology for spatial

analyses

Patterns of species richness (Figure 4) were mapped by counting

the number of species in each cell (or cell section, for species with

a coastal distribution). Patterns of threatened species richness

(Figure 5) were mapped by counting the number of threatened

species (categories CR, EN, VU at the Mediterranean regional

level) in each cell or cell section. Patterns of endemic species

richness were mapped by counting the number of species in

each cell (or cell section for coastal species) that were flagged as

being endemic to the Mediterranean region as defined in this

project (Figure 6).

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessments

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Eastern Africa. Compiled by William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith,

Thomas Lowe, Jean-Christophe Vié, 2005

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Fish Endemic to the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Kevin G. Smith and William

R.T. Darwall, 2006

The Status and Distribution of Reptiles and Amphibians of the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Neil Cox, Janice Chanson and

Simon Stuart, 2006

The Status and Distribution of European Mammals. Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Andrew Terry, 2007

Overview of the Cartilaginous Fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea. Compiled by Rachel D. Cavanagh and Claudine

Gibson, 2007

The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. Compiled by William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith,

Denis Tweddle and Paul Skelton, 2009

European Red List of Amphibians. Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Neil Cox, 2009

European Red List of Reptiles. Compiled by Neil Cox and Helen J. Temple, 2009

The Status and Distribution of Dragonflies of the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Elisa Riservato, Jean-Pierre Boudot, Sonia

Feirrera, Milos Jovic, Vincent J. Kalkman, Wolfgang Schneider and Boudjéma Samraoui, 2009

IUCN

Rue Mauverney 28

CH-1196 Gland

Switzerland

Tel +41 22 999 0000

Fax +41 22 999 0002

www.iucn.org/redlist

www.iucnredlist.org

THE IUCN red list

of threat ened species ™