The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessment
MediterRanean
Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Annabelle Cuttelod
The Status and Distribution of
Mediterranean Mammals
The Status and Distribution of
Mediterranean Mammals
Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Annabelle Cuttelod
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessment
ii
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Citation: Temple, H.J. and Cuttelod, A. (Compilers). 2009. The Status and Distribution of Mediterranean
Mammals. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK : IUCN. vii+32pp.
ISBN: 978-2-8317-1163-8 Cover design: Cambridge Publishers
Cover photo: Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus © Antonio Rivas/P. Ex-situ Lince Ibérico
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Contents
All of IUCN’s Red Listing processes rely on the willingness of
scientists to contribute and pool their collective knowledge to
make the most reliable estimates of species status. Without their
enthusiastic commitment to species conservation, this kind of
regional overview would not be possible. A list of all participating
scientists can be found at the end of this section, and the specific
contribution of each scientist is fully acknowledged in each of
the detailed individual species assessments.
This regional assessment of Mediterranean mammal species
was coordinated by Helen Temple (IUCN Species Programme)
and Annabelle Cuttelod (IUCN Centre for Mediterranean
Cooperation). We received extensive expert advice and assistance
from many IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Specialist
Groups and Working Groups, including the following:
IUCN SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Bear Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Caprinae Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Chiroptera Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Deer Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Equid Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Hippo Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Hyaena Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Lagomorph Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe
IUCN SSC Otter Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Pig Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Pinniped Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Small Carnivore Specialist Group
IUCN SSC Wolf Specialist Group
Jamie Skinner developed and promoted different aspects
of this project. Jean-Christophe Vié, Simon Stuart, Craig
Hilton-Taylor, Caroline Pollock, Mike Hoffmann and Rami
Salman provided guidance, encouragement, and good advice
throughout the project. Mohamed Karmass, Andres Alcantara
and Hugo Ruiz Lozano provided substantial assistance with
financial management of the project. Vineet Katariya, Jim Ragle,
and Janice Chanson provided high-quality support on GIS and
database issues. Nieves Garcia helped to compile this report and
wrote the photograph captions.
We would like to thank our host organization, the Civic Centre
(Centro Cívico) of the Diputación de Málaga for their extensive
help with logistical arrangements, for their warm hospitality
and for ensuring that the workshop ran smoothly. Workshop
facilitators were Craig Hilton-Taylor, Caroline Pollock, Dena
Cator, Helen Temple, Annabelle Cuttelod and Sandra Simoes.
Species accounts and maps of Mediterranean mammals were
compiled in collaboration with the IUCN Global Mammal
Assessment (GMA) (www.iucnredlist.org/mammals), and are
based in part on data compiled as part of the European Mammal
Assessment (EMA) (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/
conservation/species/redlist; www.iucnredlist.org/europe).
This work was funded by the MAVA Foundation, with additional
support from the Ayuntamiento de Málaga and the Diputación
de Málaga.
The Mediterranean mammal assessment was entirely dependent
on more than 250 mammal experts from many different
countries in the Mediterranean region and elsewhere, who
generously gave of their time and knowledge. The enthusiasm
and commitment of these people has enabled us to generate
a comprehensive and detailed picture of mammalian status
and trends in the Mediterranean region. We record our thanks
to the following people who contributed to the global and
regional assessments for species included in this report, asking
for forgiveness from anyone whose name is inadvertently
omitted or misspelled:
The Mediterranean Biodiversity Assessment is a review of
the conservation status of a wide range of Mediterranean
species – mammals, reptiles, amphibians, freshwater and
marine fishes, freshwater molluscs, dragonflies, freshwater
crabs and crayfish, and selected groups of vascular
plants. This Red List publication summarizes results for
Mediterranean terrestrial mammals, and provides the first
overview of the conservation status of these species to follow
IUCN regional Red Listing guidelines. It identifies species
that are threatened with extinction at the regional level – in
order that appropriate conservation action can be taken to
improve their status.
Scope
All terrestrial mammal species native to the Mediterranean
or naturalized since before 1500 A.D. are included in this
report. One marine and coastal species, the Mediterranean
Monk Seal Monachus monachus is also included.
Mediterranean cetaceans (dolphins and whales) are
covered in a separate publication. For the purposes of this
mammal assessment, the Mediterranean region was defined
politically to include the following countries: Albania,
Algeria, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Jordan,
Lebanon, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, FYR Macedonia, Malta,
Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Occupied Palestinian
Territories, Portugal (including Madeira), San Marino,
Serbia, Slovenia, Spain (including the Canary Islands),
Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Turkey and
Western Sahara.
Status assessment
The status of all species was assessed using the IUCN Red
List Criteria (IUCN 2001), which are the world’s most
widely accepted system for measuring relative extinction
risk. All assessments followed the Guidelines for Application
of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels (IUCN 2003).
Information on each species was compiled by a small
team, in collaboration with IUCN Specialist Groups and
other experts. Regional assessments were carried out at an
assessment workshop and through correspondence with
relevant experts. More than 250 mammal experts from a
large number of different countries in the Mediterranean
and elsewhere actively participated in the data compilation,
assessment and review process.
Results
One in six (16.5%) Mediterranean mammals included in
this report are threatened with extinction at the regional
scale, with a further 8% assessed as Near Threatened. By
comparison, 56% of Mediterranean endemic freshwater
fishes (Smith & Darwall 2006), 56% of dolphins and whales
(Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006), 42% of sharks
and rays (Cavanagh & Gibson 2007), 36% of crabs and
crayfish (Cuttelod et al. 2008), 29% of amphibians (Cox
et al. 2006), 19% of dragonflies and damselflies (Riservato
et al. 2009), 13% of reptiles (Cox et al. 2006) and 5% of
birds (Cuttelod et al. 2008) are considered to be threatened.
One mammal species, the Sardinian Pika Prolagus sardus, has
become globally extinct since 1500 A.D. and a further seven
species, including the Lion Panthera leo and Tiger P. tigris
have been extirpated from the Mediterranean region.
More than one-quarter (27%) of Mediterranean mammals
have declining populations, 31% are stable, while for a
further 40% the population trend is unknown; only 3%
of species populations are increasing. A number of these
increases are due to successful species-specific conservation
action. Terrestrial mammal biodiversity is greatest in
mountainous parts of the region, with particularly high
concentrations of threatened species found in the mountains
of Turkey, the Levant, and north-west Africa. The Maghreb
holds a large number of endemic species, which are unique
to the Mediterranean and found nowhere else in the world.
Although the Sahara has relatively low species richness, a
high proportion of Saharan species are threatened.
Many of the threatened mammal species are endemic to the
region, highlighting the responsibility that Mediterranean
countries have to protect the entire global populations of
these species. Of the 49 threatened species, 20 (41%) are
unique to the region and occur nowhere else in the world.
The greatest threat to Mediterranean mammals is destruction
and degradation of habitat, caused by a variety of factors
including agricultural intensification, urbanization, pollution,
and climate change. Human disturbance, overexploitation
and invasive species are also major threats.
Conservation recommendations
For bats, the main recommendations are to improve the legal
protection framework, to better enforce existing legislation,
and to encourage more environmentally friendly practices in
agriculture and when restoring buildings. Further research
Executive summary
vii
is needed on a number of issues including habitat and
foraging requirements, population size and trends, impacts
of pesticide use on prey species, and methods to minimize
impacts of wind farms.
For non-volant (flightless) small mammals more sustainable
agricultural practices are needed to prevent habitat loss and
degradation both from agricultural intensification and land
abandonment. Legislation and enforcement of existing
measures are needed to prevent the introduction of alien
invasive species such as the American Mink Neovison vison.
Measures to raise public awareness of the diversity, importance
and threats to small mammals are needed in order to modify
their “pest” image and explain their ecological importance.
For large mammals, recommendations include
improvement of management of protected areas and of the
wider environment, better enforcement of existing laws and
regulations controlling hunting (including new legislation
in some cases), and development and implementation of
species-specific management plans for the most threatened
species. Restoring habitats and wild prey populations at the
landscape level is essential for the conservation of threatened
large carnivores; large herbivores similarly require landscapelevel
actions to ensure the maintenance of grazing systems.
The conservation of large carnivores can be controversial
– understanding people’s attitudes towards predators
and gaining their acceptance is crucial to the success of
conservation and management programmes.
viii
The Barbary Macaque Macaca sylvanus is Endangered (EN) and in decline as it is threatened by the loss and degradation of its habitat.
It is the only surviving primate in Africa north of the Sahara desert and the only native species of primate to occur in Europe. It was
previously widespread throughout North Africa but its current distribution is limited to small patches of forest and scrub in Algeria and
Morocco. A semi-wild population lives on Gibraltar, where it was introduced in historical times. Photograph © Ricardo Rocha.
1
1.1 The Mediterranean context
The Mediterranean Basin, stretching west to east from Portugal
to the Levant, covers three continents (Europe, Asia and Africa).
The region is characterized by its climate, where cool and wet
winters alternate with long, hot, dry summers. In some areas,
for example in Libya and Egypt, annual rainfall can be as low as
50mm per year, whereas in the well-watered regions, such as the
Adriatic coast of the Balkan countries, rainfall is over 1,000mm.
With almost 5,000 islands and islets, the Mediterranean
comprises one of the largest groups of islands in the world. The
islands are of high value to global biodiversity due to their wealth
of species, relatively high levels of endemism, long history of
isolation, and tolerance of many kinds of disruptions, as well as
their role as a natural laboratory for evolutionary studies.
Besides the variety of these climatic, geological and hydrological
features, the Mediterranean has experienced intense human
development and impact on its ecosystems for thousands of
years, and various forms of human settlements have existed
there for at least 8,000 years. This has created a mosaic of
natural and cultural landscapes, with thousands of habitats,
ranging from high mountains to large rivers, from wetlands
and forests to deserts, which favor the differentiation and
existence of numerous species, leading to the high level of
endemism found in the region. It is therefore not surprising
that the Mediterranean Basin is one of the world’s richest places
in terms of animal and plant diversity and has been recognized
as one of 34 Biodiversity Hotspots (Mittermeier et al. 2004).
However, this ancient, rich and diverse region is now facing
severe pressure. The Mediterranean-rim countries hold
around 400 million people, and 135 million of them live
on the Mediterranean coast. The Blue Plan estimates that
the population of the northern-rim nations will grow by
around 4 million between 2000 and 2025; the population of
the southern- and eastern-rim nations will grow by around
98 million over the same period. Considerable economic
disparities exist within the region, with the GNI per capita of
the Mediterranean EU countries (USD 20,800) being ten times
that of the North African ones (USD 2,100) (World Bank
2006). Poor people depend heavily on natural resources and the
loss of biodiversity is undermining the potential for economic
growth, affecting the security of populations (food, health,
etc.) and limiting their options. On the other hand, economic
development increases the pressures on the environment and
hence conservation challenges and options in the region are
driven by these economic inequities. Mediterranean countries
are also an international travel destination for nearly 250
million visitors per year – 31% of all international tourists –
the majority of whom visit the coastal zone (Blue Plan 2008).
Many visitors to the region are drawn by its natural beauty, but
heavy pressure from visitors and residents alike is causing severe
environmental degradation.
Furthermore, low rainfall combined with unsustainable farming
practices has also led to desertification, erosion, salinization
and land degradation in many areas, with for example 30%
of Greece being declared “threatened” and 60% of Portugal
facing a moderate risk of desertification. Forests have always
played, and still play, an important role in the daily life of the
Mediterranean peoples. Although Mediterranean forests provide
low direct economic returns on wood products in comparison
to the Northern European forests, they play a crucial role in
maintaining key ecosystem components for securing human
welfare and life in the region. Previously, exploitation of the
natural landscape was long, slow and relatively sustainable. In
the past decades, that balance between nature and humankind
has been lost. Urbanization, coastal development, pollution,
agricultural intensification, unsustainable exploitation of
natural resources and climate change are just some of the many
human activities that are leading an ever-increasing number of
Mediterranean species to be facing a high risk of extinction.
1.2 Mediterranean mammals: diversity
and endemism
Mammals are a well-known class of vertebrates, including
many familiar domesticated species and pets, as well as our own
species Homo sapiens. All mammals are warm-blooded, and all
female mammals possess mammary glands (mammae), which
are used to suckle the young with milk. Mammals are further
distinguished by the possession of hair or fur, although this
is limited to early developmental stages in cetaceans (whales
and dolphins). The vast majority of mammals give birth to live
young, the exception being the egg-laying Monotremata (a
small group of mammals including the Duck-billed Platypus
and the echidnas or spiny anteaters), which do not occur in the
Mediterranean (Nowak 1999).
The mammal fauna of the Mediterranean is largely derived from
the Eurasian and African biogeographic zones and therefore
exhibits relatively low levels of endemism, as most species tend
to have very wide ranges. Within the study region, there are
319 terrestrial mammal species, of which 89 species (28%) are
endemic, and 15 species of marine mammal, of which none
are endemic (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006) (Tables
1 & 2). Of these 334 species, 320 were included in the present
study: all terrestrial species plus the Mediterranean Monk Seal
Monachus monachus. Mediterranean cetaceans are covered in a
separate report (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
1. Background
* This table includes species that are native or naturalized since before 1500 A.D.; species introduced after this date are not included. Extinct and Regionally
Extinct species are included. Species of marginal occurrence in the Mediterranean are included.
Table 1. Diversity and endemism in mammalian orders and families in the Mediterranean region (excluding cetaceans, but
including the Mediterranean Monk Seal)*
3
Terrestrial mammals native to the Mediterranean belong to
ten major groups: Carnivora (carnivores), Cetartiodactyla
(even-toed ungulates, dolphins and whales), Chiroptera (bats),
Eulipotyphla (shrews, moles and hedgehogs), Hyracoidea
(hyraxes) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas), Macroscelidea
(elephant shrews), Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates), Primates
(primates) and Rodentia (rodents).
Marine mammals native to the Mediterranean belong to
two taxonomic orders, the Cetartiodactyla and Carnivora.
Mediterranean marine carnivores are represented by a single
species, the Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus monachus.
Fourteen species of whales and dolphins regularly occur in the
Mediterranean region (Table 2), with a further eight species
recorded as vagrants (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
The majority of Mediterranean mammal species are small nonvolant
and volant mammals belonging to the orders Rodentia
(rodents), Chiroptera (bats), and Eulipotyphla (shrews, moles
and hedgehogs) (see Table 1). The largest mammal family
in the Mediterranean, and also the largest and most diverse
family at the global level, is the Muridae (rats and mice), with
62 species. Murid subfamilies present in the Mediterranean
include the Deomyinae (spiny mice), the Gerbillinae (gerbils
and jirds) and the Murinae (Old World rats and mice). Other
families with a particularly large number of representatives in
the Mediterranean region include the Vespertilionidae (evening
bats and vesper bats – 45 species) and Cricetidae (hamsters and
voles – 36 species).
Just over one-quarter of terrestrial mammal species are endemic
to the Mediterranean. Endemism is particularly high in the
small non-volant mammals (Rodentia and Eulipotyphla). Larger
terrestrial mammals and bats tend to be more mobile and wideranging,
and the majority of these species have ranges extending
outside the region. However, among larger mammal species
there is a high proportion of endemism in the lagomorphs
(hares, rabbits and pikas – 5 out of 9 species present are endemic
to the Mediterranean). The Barbary Macaque is endemic to the
Order Family Number of species Number of
endemic species
Percentage endemic
Cetartiodactyla Balaenopteridae 3 0 0%
Delphinidae 8 0 0%
Phocoenidae 1 0 0%
Physeteridae 1 0 0%
Ziphiidae 1 0 0%
Total 14 0 0%
Table 2. Diversity and endemism in cetacean (whale, dolphin and porpoise) families in the Mediterranean region*
* Cetacean families are listed for the sake of completeness, but were not included in the assessment process reported here and are not covered in subsequent
sections of this publication. This list does not include species considered to be vagrants in the region by Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara (2006).
Mediterranean, and consequently 100% of primate species
occurring in the region are endemic.
Although mammals are one of the better known taxonomic
groups, there are still new discoveries to be made regarding
mammalian diversity and endemism in the region: two new
species endemic to Mediterranean islands, the Sardinian Longeared
Bat Plecotus sardus and the Cyprus Mouse Mus cypriacus
have been described in recent years (Mucedda et al. 2002,
Bonhomme et al. 2004, Cucchi et al. 2006).
The Iberian Lynx Lynx pardinus is the world’s most threatened felid species. It is endemic
to Spain and Portugal, and currently categorised by IUCN as Critically Endangered
(CR) as a result of the fragmentation of its natural habitat by agricultural and industrial
development. Photograph © Programa de Conservación Ex s itu del Lince Ibérico.
4
1.3 Species threatened status
The threatened status of plants and animals is one of the most
widely used indicators for assessing the condition of ecosystems
and their biodiversity. It also provides an important tool
underpinning priority-setting exercises for species conservation.
At the global scale the best source of information on the
conservation status of plants and animals is the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species (see www.iucnredlist.org). The Red
List provides taxonomic, conservation status, and distribution
information on taxa that have been evaluated using the IUCN
Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 (IUCN 2001). This
system is designed to determine the relative risk of extinction,
with the main purpose of cataloguing and highlighting those
taxa that are facing a higher risk of extinction (i.e., those listed
as Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable).
1.4 O bjectives of the assessment
This assessment of mammals in the Mediterranean basin has
two main objectives:
■ To assist in regional conservation planning by assessing the
status and distribution of all species occurring within the
region; and
■ To develop a network of regional experts to support future
assessments and the updating of the information on these
species.
The assessment provides two main direct outputs:
A report on the status of the mammals of the Mediterranean
basin, including a Red List assessment of all the species, an
identification of the main threats for each species, and a spatial
representation of the centres of species richness and threats;
A database that provides a baseline for monitoring the status of
Mediterranean mammals.
The data presented in this report and the booklet provides a
snapshot based on available knowledge at the time of writing.
The database will continue to be updated and made freely
and widely available. IUCN will ensure wide dissemination
of this data to relevant decision makers, NGOs, and scientists
to inform the implementation of conservation actions on the
ground.
Figure 1. IUCN Red List Categories at the regional level (IUCN 2003)
5
2.1 Global versus regional assessment
The present study was an assessment of the regional conservation
status of all Mediterranean mammal species (excluding the
cetaceans), following the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red
List Criteria at Regional Levels (IUCN 2003). It complements
and contributes to the global status assessments of Mediterranean
mammal species carried out through the Global Mammal
Assessment (GMA) (see Schipper et al. 2008). A regional approach
to identifying threatened species complements global conservation
status assessments, and provides information at an appropriate scale
for international conservation policies and legislation that have a
regional focus. The information provided here will help to put
national conservation priorities into a Mediterranean context, thus
maximising the effectiveness of local and national conservation
measures, and facilitating the development of integrated regional
conservation strategies.
2.2 Geographic scope
The Mediterranean basin was defined politically to include the
following countries and territories1: Albania, Algeria, Andorra,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt,
France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya, FYR Macedonia, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro,
Morocco, Occupied Palestinian Territories, Portugal (including
Madeira), San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain (including the
Canary Islands), Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia,
Turkey and Western Sahara (Figure 2).
2.3 Taxonomic scope
All mammal species native to the Mediterranean or naturalized before
1500 A.D. were included in the assessment, with the exception of
the cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) that are assessed at
the regional level through a separate initiative led by the IUCN SSC
Cetacean Specialist Group (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006).
Domesticated species are not eligible for classification according to
the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, and were excluded
from the assessment. Species introduced to the Mediterranean
region by man after 1500 A.D., as well as species that are vagrant or
of marginal or uncertain occurrence, were classed as Not Applicable.
The Mediterranean mammal assessment uses the third edition
of Mammal Species of the World (Wilson and Reeder 2005) as its
default taxonomy for most taxonomic groups, although it departs
from this in a few justified circumstances. Distinct subpopulations
and subspecies of mammals within the Mediterranean were not
individually assessed as part of this project.
¹ As listed by United Nations
2. Assessment methodology
Expert participants at the Mediterranean Mammal Red List workshop held in Málaga, Spain, 29 October – 2 November 2007. Photograph © Sandra Simoes.
6
2.4 Assessment protocol
For every mammal species native to the Mediterranean or
naturalized before 1500 A.D., the following data were compiled;
Species’ taxonomic classification, Geographic range (including
a distribution map), Red List Category and Criteria, Population
information, Habitat preferences, Major threats, Conservation
measures (in place, and needed), Species utilization, Other general
information and Key literature references.
These data were compiled in collaboration with the IUCN Global
Mammal Assessment (GMA) and European Mammal Assessment
(EMA). For detailed information on the GMA and EMA data
compilation processes, see Schipper et al. (2008) and Temple &
Terry (2007). Many Mediterranean mammal species had already
been preliminarily reviewed during at least one other regional or
taxon-focused workshop, including the Africa Small Mammals
workshop (24-30 January 2004, United Kingdom), the European
Mammal Assessment workshop (18-22 May 2006, Austria), and
the Southwest Asia Mammals Workshop (22-25 November 2005,
Turkey).
2.5 Review workshop (2007) and
evaluation of assessments
Mammal experts from the Mediterranean were invited to attend
a five-day review workshop held from 29 October – 2 November
2007 in Malaga, Spain. Focused working groups were organized
to efficiently review taxonomic sets of species (large mammals,
bats, and small non-volant mammals).
Preliminary species summary reports, distribution maps and
global assessments were distributed to all the participants before
the workshop to allow them to review the data presented and
prepare any changes to the data.
New information was added to the species summaries and maps,
and corrections to existing data were made. Red List assessments
for each species were then made at the Mediterranean regional
level (according to regional Red Listing guidelines; IUCN 2003).
Facilitating staff from the IUCN Species Programme evaluated
the assessments to check they complied with the guidelines for
application of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria and
included the most up-to-date, comprehensive information.
Following the review workshop, the data were edited, and
outstanding questions were resolved through communications
with the workshop participants. The post-workshop assessments
were also made available on an FTP site to allow the participating
scientists to make any final edits and corrections.
The resulting finalized IUCN Red List assessments are a product
of scientific consensus concerning species status and are backed by
relevant literature and data sources.
Figure 2. The Mediterranean mammal assessment region
7
3.1 Threatened status of mammals
Approximately one-sixth (16.5%) of mammal species
assessed were found to be threatened with extinction in the
Mediterranean, of which 3.0% were Critically Endangered,
5.1% were Endangered and 8.4% were Vulnerable (Table 3 and
Figure 3). A further 7.7% were considered Near Threatened, and
2.7% were already Extinct or Regionally Extinct. A relatively
high proportion of species, 12.5%, were considered to be Data
Deficient. Species classed as threatened (Critically Endangered,
Endangered and Vulnerable) are listed in Table 4.
3. Results
IUCN Red List categories No. species No. endemic species
Extinct (EX) 1 1
Extinct in the Wild (EW) 0 0
Regionally Extinct (RE) 7 7
Threatened
categories
Critically Endangered (CR) 9 1
Endangered (EN) 15 7
Vulnerable (VU) 25 12
Near Threatened (NT) 23 3
Least Concern (LC) 180 48
Data Deficient (DD) 37 17
Total number of species assessed* 297 89
*Excluding 23 species that are considered Not Applicable as they are of marginal occurrence in the region.
Table 3. Summary of numbers of mammal species within each category of threat
Figure 3. Red List status of mammals in the Mediterranean
3.2 E xtinctions
One endemic Mediterranean mammal species, the Sardinian
Pika Prolagus sardus, is known to have gone extinct since 1500
A.D. A further seven species (2.4% of the total number of
species assessed) have been extirpated from the Mediterranean
as a result of human activities and are considered Regionally
Extinct (Table 6).
3.3 Status by taxonomic group
Terrestrial mammals native to the Mediterranean belong to
ten major groups or taxonomic orders: Carnivora (carnivores),
Cetartiodactyla (even-toed ungulates, dolphins and whales),
Chiroptera (bats), Eulipotyphla (shrews, moles and hedgehogs),
Hyracoidea (hyraxes) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares and pikas),
Macroscelidea (elephant shrews), Perissodactyla (odd-toed
ungulates), Primates (primates) and Rodentia (rodents).
Considerable differences exist among these groups in both
species numbers as well as threatened status (see Table 5).
Rodents, bats, shrews, hedgehogs and moles constitute the
majority of Mediterranean mammals. Ungulates, primates,
carnivores and lagomorphs (rabbits and hares) are particularly
threatened, and eight species from these groups have already
gone extinct in the Mediterranean region.
8
Order Family Scientific name Common name
Red List
Category Endemic?
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Lycaon pictus African Wild Dog CR
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Leptailurus serval Serval CR
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx pardinus Iberian Lynx CR Yes
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera pardus Leopard CR
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela lutreola European Mink CR
CARNIVORA PHOCIDAE Monachus monachus Mediterranean Monk Seal CR
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella subgutturosa Goitered Gazelle CR
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Nanger dama Dama Gazelle CR
PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus africanus African Wild Ass CR
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Acinonyx jubatus Cheetah EN
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx lynx Eurasian Lynx EN
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella cuvieri Cuvier’s Gazelle EN Yes
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella dorcas Dorcas Gazelle EN
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella leptoceros Slender-horned Gazelle EN
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx leucoryx Arabian Oryx EN
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ovis orientalis Urial EN
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus azoreum Azores Noctule EN Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus maderensis Madeira Pipistrelle EN Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus teneriffae Canary Long-eared Bat EN Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura canariensis Canary Shrew EN Yes
PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus hemionus Asiatic Wild Ass EN
PRIMATES CERCOPITHECIDAE Macaca sylvanus Barbary Macaque EN Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hesperinus Western Gerbil EN Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones dahli Dahl’s Jird EN
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes cana Blanford’s Fox VU
CARNIVORA HYAENIDAE Hyaena hyaena Striped Hyaena VU
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Vormela peregusna European Marbled Polecat VU
CARNIVORA URSIDAE Ursus arctos Brown Bear VU
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ammotragus lervia Aoudad VU
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra aegagrus Wild Goat VU
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra nubiana Nubian Ibex VU
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella gazella Mountain Gazelle VU
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus euryale Mediterranean Horseshoe Bat VU
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus mehelyi Mehely’s Horseshoe Bat VU
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis capaccinii Long-fingered Bat VU
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus sardus Sardinian Long-eared Bat VU Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura zimmermanni Cretan White-toothed Shrew VU Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Galemys pyrenaicus Pyrenean Desman VU Yes
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus castroviejoi Broom Hare VU Yes
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus corsicanus Corsican Hare VU Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola sapidus Southwestern Water Vole VU Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Dinaromys bogdanovi Balkan Snow Vole VU Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus auratus Golden Hamster VU Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Prometheomys schaposchnikowi Long-clawed Mole Vole VU
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga tetradactyla Four-toed Jerboa VU Yes
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Myomimus roachi Roach’s Mouse-tailed Dormouse VU Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hoogstraali Hoogstraal’s Gerbil VU Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones sacramenti Buxton’s Jird VU Yes
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus citellus European Ground Squirrel VU
Table 4. Threatened Mediterranean mammal species
9
3.4 Spatial distribution of species
3.4.1 Species richness
Information on the species richness of mammals within orders
and families has already been given in Section 1.2 and Tables 1
and 2. The geographic distribution of mammal species richness
in Mediterranean basin countries is presented in Figure 4. The
mountainous parts of the region clearly stand out as areas of high
species richness. In the European part of the Mediterranean,
this includes the Pyrenees, Massif Central, Alps, Apennines,
Carpathians, and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula. In
Asian and African parts of the Mediterranean, this includes
the mountains of Turkey, the Levant region, and the Atlas,
Anti-Atlas and Rif ranges in north-west Africa. Looking at
mammalian diversity from a country perspective, the top five
countries in terms of species richness are (in descending order):
Turkey, Morocco, Italy, Israel and France (see Table 7). Turkey
has a particularly high species richness as it is a large country
that spans several biogeographic regions. Although the Balkan
region has very high species richness, the individual countries
in this region are small and none of them appear in the top
five.
3.4.2 Distribution of threatened species
A map showing the distribution of threatened mammals in the
Mediterranean (Figure 5) reveals somewhat different patterns
from depictions of overall species diversity. North-west Africa,
Turkey and the Levant all hold important concentrations of
threatened species. Although overall species richness in the
Sahara is low, the proportion of threatened species there is
high, in part as a result of the heavy pressure placed on the few
species of desert antelopes by over-hunting.
Order Total* EX RE CR EN VU NT LC DD % threatened
% Extinct or
Regionally Extinct
CARNIVORA 36 2 6 2 4 4 17 1 33.3 5.6
CETARTIODACTYLA** 25 5 2 5 4 8 1 44.0 20.0
CHIROPTERA 55 3 4 11 29 8 12.7 0.0
EULIPOTYPHLA 45 1 2 1 33 8 6.7 0.0
HYRACOIDEA 1 1 0.0 0.0
LAGOMORPHA 8 1 2 1 4 25.0 12.5
MACROSCELIDEA 1 1 0.0 0.0
PERISSODACTYLA 2 1 1 100.0 0.0
PRIMATES 1 1 100.0 0.0
RODENTIA 123 2 9 6 87 19 8.9 0.0
Total 297 1 7 9 15 25 23 180 37 16.5 2.7
Table 5. Red List Status (Mediterranean Regional level) by taxonomic order
* Does not include species classed as Not Applicable (NA).
** Terrestrial species only; excluding dolphins and whales.
Order Family Scientific name Common name
IUCN Red List
category
LAGOMORPHA PROLAGIDAE Prolagus sardus Sardinian Pika Extinct
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera leo Lion Regionally Extinct
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera tigris Tiger Regionally Extinct
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Addax nasomaculatus Addax Regionally Extinct
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Alcelaphus buselaphus Hartebeest Regionally Extinct
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx dammah Scimitar-horned Oryx Regionally Extinct*
CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Dama mesopotamica Mesopotamian Fallow
Deer Regionally Extinct
CETARTIODACTYLA HIPPOPOTAMIDAE Hippopotamus amphibius Common
Hippopotamus Regionally Extinct
Table 6. Mediterranean mammal species considered Extinct or Regionally Extinct
* This species is extinct as a wild species in the region, although there are still some populations in fenced enclosures.
10
Figure 4. Species richness of Mediterranean mammals
Figure 5. Distribution of threatened mammals in the Mediterranean
11
3.4.3 Endemic species richness
Figure 6 shows the distribution of endemic mammal species
(ie, those that are unique to the Mediterranean and are found
nowhere else in the world, see Table 1). Endemic species richness
is particularly high in the Maghreb, although the Iberian
and Italian peninsulas also hold important concentrations of
endemic mammals, as do the Mediterranean islands.
Name
Total
number
of species*
Number of
endemic
species*
Number of
threatened
species*
Albania 69 4 5
Algeria 95 19 14
Andorra 47 5 4
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
78 4 7
Bulgaria 91 3 10
Croatia 88 3 9
Cyprus 26 2 3
Egypt 92 13 15
France 96 14 8
Greece 91 10 9
Israel 98 5 16
Italy 100 15 8
Jordan 78 1 14
Lebanon 63 2 9
Lybia 80 20 10
Macedonia, FYR 77 6 8
Malta 19 4 1
Monaco 28 1 1
Montenegro 86 6 9
Morocco 105 22 16
Palestinian
Territories
27 1 5
Portugal 64 13 8
San Marino 27 1 2
Serbia 93 7 9
Slovenia 82 0 6
Spain 90 20 14
Switzerland 84 4 5
Syria 89 3 15
Tunisia 75 18 14
Turkey 144 11 17
Western Sahara 34 4 5
Table 7. Number of mammal species in the countries
and territories included in the Mediterranean assessment
region
* Including species classed as Not Applicable (marginal occurrence).
Including native and reintroduced species; excluding introduced species.
Including extant, possibly extinct and extinct species (since 1500 A.D.);
excluding species classed as “presence uncertain”. This list includes all
terrestrial mammal species plus the Mediterranean Monk Seal; it excludes
cetaceans (dolphins and whales).
3.5 Major threats to terrestrial mammals
in the Mediterranean
The major threats to each species were coded using the
IUCN-Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP) Unified
Classification of Direct Threats. In addition to the direct threats
identified as actual or potential drivers of population change,
accompanying non-exclusive stresses were coded with each
threat to highlight how a threat impacts upon a population. A
summary of the relative importance of the different threatening
processes and the stresses that they cause is shown in Figures 7
and 8.
The threats to Mediterranean mammals are many and varied:
agriculture, hunting and trapping, and invasive species are the
most severe, respectively affecting 31 (65%), 29 (60%) and 24
(50%) threatened species. These create stresses on mammal
populations in a range of ways, the most common being habitat
destruction and degradation, which affect 43 (90%) threatened
species (Figure 8).
The Balkan Snow Vole Dinaromys bogdanovi is considered to be Vulnerable (VU). It is
endemic to the Mediterranean region, where it has a very limited and fragmented range.
Photography © Boris Krystufek.
12
Figure 6. Endemic species richness of mammals in the Mediterranean
Figure 7. Main threats to terrestrial mammals in the Mediterranean region
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Agriculture
Hunting & trapping
Invasive species
Human intrusions & disturbance
Resdidential & commercial development
Pollution
Logging
Climate change & weather
Dams & water use/management
Transportation & service corridors
Change in fire regime
Energy production & mining
Threatened species (CR, EN, VU)
Non-threatened species (NT, LC)
Number of species
13
Figure 8. Main stresses on terrestrial mammals in the Mediterranean region
Figure 9. Population trends of Mediterranean mammals
0 20 40 60 80 100
3.6 D emographic trends
Documenting population trends is a key to assessing species
status, and an effort was made to determine which species
are believed to be declining, stable, or increasing. More than
one-quarter (27%) of Mediterranean mammals are declining
in population. A further 31% are stable, and only 3% are
Ecosystem
conversion/degredation
Direct mortality
Disturbance
Competition
Hybridisation
Threatened species (CR, EN, VU)
Non-threatened species (NT, LC)
Number of species
increasing (see Figure 9). A number of these increases are due
to successful species-based conservation action (for example
in the cases of the Iberian Wild Goat Capra pyrenaica, the
Alpine Ibex Capra ibex and the Eurasian beaver Castor fiber).
However, because trend information is not available for 40%
of species, the percentage of species in decline may actually be
considerably higher.
14
4.1 Status of Mediterranean mammals
The status of Mediterranean mammals was assessed at the
regional level according to the IUCN Red List Categories and
Criteria (IUCN 2001), the world’s most widely used system
for classifying species according to their extinction risk, and
the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at
Regional Levels (IUCN 2003). All native species except
cetaceans (whales and dolphins) were included. Overall,
one-sixth (16%) of the 298 mammal species covered in this
assessment were found to be threatened with extinction
in the Mediterranean2. Of that total, 3% were Critically
Endangered, 5% Endangered and 8% Vulnerable. A further
8% were considered Near Threatened, and 3% were already
Extinct or Regionally Extinct.
By comparison with other Mediterranean species groups
assessed to date, this is an intermediate level of threat. Previous
assessments have shown that 56% of Mediterranean endemic
freshwater fishes (Smith & Darwall 2006), 56% of dolphins
and whales (Reeves and Notarbartolo di Sciara 2006), 42%
of sharks and rays (Cavanagh & Gibson 2007), 36% of crabs
and crayfish (Cuttelod et al. 2008), 29% of amphibians (Cox
et al. 2006), 19% of dragonflies and damselflies (Riservato et
al. 2009), 13% of reptiles (Cox et al. 2006) and 5% of birds
(Cuttelod et al. 2008) are at risk of extinction.
Two small groups of mammals – odd-toed ungulates (Order
Perissodactyla; represented in the region by the African Wild
Ass and the Asiatic Wild Ass) and primates (Order Primates;
one species, the Barbary Macaque) – show extremely high
levels of threat with 100% of species threatened in each case.
Equally alarming is the status of the even-toed ungulates
(Order Cetartiodactyla), a well-known group including such
species as antelopes, ibex, and wild sheep and goats. Of the 25
species from this group that are native to the Mediterranean,
11 (44%) are threatened with extinction and a further 5 (20%)
are already extinct in the region. The threatened list includes
all except one of the antelope species found in the region.
Mediterranean carnivores and lagomorphs (rabbits and hares)
also show a very high proportion of species to be threatened
with extinction or already extinct.
Many of the threatened mammal species are endemic to the
region, highlighting the responsibility that Mediterranean
countries have to protect the entire global populations of these
species. Of the 49 threatened species, 20 (41%) are unique to
the region and occur nowhere else in the world.
4. Discussion
2 Excluding species assessed as Not Applicable.
4.2 E xtinctions
By comparison with other taxonomic groups covered in the
Mediterranean regional assessment (Cuttelod et al. 2008), a
relatively high proportion of Mediterranean mammal species
have been driven extinct or Regionally Extinct since 1500 A.D.
as a result of human activities. This stands as a warning of the
fate that may befall other Mediterranean mammals if effective
conservation actions are not urgently implemented.
One endemic Mediterranean mammal species, the Sardinian
Pika Prolagus sardus, is known to have gone extinct since
1500 A.D. It lived on the islands of Sardinia and Corsica until
its extinction, which probably occurred in the late 1700s or
early 1800s. It is thought that habitat loss, predation, and
competition with alien invasive species were responsible for its
extinction.
A further seven species (2.4% of the total number of species
assessed) have been extirpated from the Mediterranean as
a result of human activities and are considered Regionally
Extinct.
The Lion Panthera leo formerly ranged from northern Africa
through southwest Asia (where it disappeared from most
countries within the last 150 years), west into Europe, where
it apparently became extinct almost 2,000 years ago, and east
into India (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist
2002). Lions were driven to extinction in North Africa by
hunting and habitat loss; they perhaps survived in the High
Atlas Mountains up to the 1940s (Nowell and Jackson 1996,
West and Packer in press).
The Tiger Panthera tigris once ranged widely across Asia,
from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell
and Jackson, 1996), but over the past 100 years they have
disappeared from many areas and lost 93% of their historic
range (Sanderson et al. 2006). Tigers in the Mediterranean
region belonged to the extinct subspecies P. t. virgata (Caspian
Tiger). Caspian Tigers and their large ungulate prey were
found in the sparse forest habitats and riverine corridors west
(Turkey) and south (Iran) of the Caspian Sea and west through
Central Asia into Xinjiang, China (Nowell and Jackson 1996,
Abdukadir and Breitenmoser 2008). Their extinction can be
attributed to hunting of both tigers and their prey, habitat
loss and conversion, and increased vulnerability of small
populations (Sunquist et al. 1999). The last Caspian Tiger
was seen in the early 1970s, and there are none in captivity
15
The Iberian Wild Goat Capra pyrenaica is a species native to Spain and considered as Least Concern (LC). It is abundant in its range and currently expanding as a result of conservation
actions and habitat changes resulting from rural abandonment. Hunting reservations and protected areas have played a crucial role in this species’ recovery. Photograph © Pedro Regato.
(Nowell and Jackson 1996). The last definite record from the
Mediterranean region is from an individual killed in 1970 and
photographed in Uludere in Hakkari province (south-east
Turkey) (Baytop 1973).
Addax Addax nasomaculatus were formerly widespread in the
Sahelo-Saharan region of Africa, west of the Nile Valley, and
present in suitable habitats in all countries sharing the Sahara
Desert (including the Mediterranean countries of Egypt,
Libya, and Algeria) (Newby in press). As with other ungulates
of the Sahelo-Saharan fauna, the Addax has undergone an
unprecedented reduction in geographical range over the past
century as a result of hunting and habitat loss, and today the
only known remaining population survives in the Termit/Tin
Toumma region of Niger.
Hartebeest Alcelaphus buselaphus formerly ranged from North
Africa and the Middle East throughout the savannas, grasslands
and miombo woodlands of Africa down to the tip of southern
Africa. In North Africa, the Bubal Hartebeest (subspecies
A. b. buselaphus) occurred in Morocco, Algeria, southern
Tunisia, Libya, and parts of the Western Desert in Egypt (the
precise southern limits of distribution are not known). Bubal
Hartebeest are now Extinct, the last animals having been shot
between 1945 and 1954 in Algeria (De Smet 1989). The last
report from southern Morocco was possibly around 1945
(Panouse 1957).
The Scimitar-horned Oryx Oryx dammah was formerly
widespread across North Africa, at least in arid and Saharan
areas, but it is now Extinct in the Wild over all its range, and
Regionally Extinct in the Mediterranean. An estimated 500
Oryx survived at least until 1985 in Chad and Niger, but by
1988 only a few dozen individuals survived in the wild and
since then there have been no confirmed reports (Morrow in
press). Captive herds are kept in fenced protected areas in
Tunisia, Senegal and Morocco (Sous Massa National Park;
probably outside the known historical range) as part of longterm
reintroduction programmes. Overhunting and habitat
loss, including competition with domestic livestock, have been
reported as the main reasons for the extinction of the wild
population of Scimitar-horned Oryx (Mallon and Kingswood
2001, Devillers and Devillers-Terschuren 2005, Morrow in
press).
The Persian Fallow Deer Dama mesopotamica formerly
occurred in Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Occupied
Palestinian Territories, Syria and eastern Turkey (Hemami
16
and Rabiei 2002). By 1875 it was restricted to south-western
and western Iran, having disappeared from the rest of its
range. It was considered extinct, but a small population was
rediscovered in south-western Iran in 1956. The only surviving
indigenous wild populations are in Dez Wildlife Refuge and
Karkeh Wildlife Refuge in south-western Iran. There is a
small reintroduced population in Israel, but these animals are
hybrids with the European Fallow Deer D. dama. Poaching
and habitat destruction are two of the main threats that led to
the Persian Fallow Deer’s long decline and disappearance from
the Mediterranean region.
The Common Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius was
formerly found in Egypt, although it was already rare by the
time of the Renaissance. From the end of the Roman Empire
up until towards 1700 at the latest, the hippo was still present
in two disjunct zones in the Nile Delta and in the upper Nile.
Through the 1700s, records become increasingly scarce, and
the latest definite records are from the early 1800s (Manlius
2000). Common Hippos remain widespread in sub-Saharan
Africa, but they have undergone significant declines in recent
years as a result of illegal and unregulated hunting for meat and
ivory (found in the canine teeth) and habitat loss. These same
threats are probably responsible for the disappearance of the
species from the Mediterranean region.
The Red Gazelle Eudorcas rufina is listed in some sources as an
extinct species, but here it is classed as Data Deficient owing
to uncertainty about whether it is a valid species. The African
Wild Ass Equus africanus is considered to be extinct in the
Western Palaearctic by some authors (e.g., Aulagnier et al.
2008), but it is here listed as Critically Endangered as there
have not yet been exhaustive searches to confirm that the last
individuals have disappeared from the region; however it is
likely that this species is already extinct in the Mediterranean.
4.3 Major threats to Mediterranean
mammals
The most significant threat to mammals in the Mediterranean
region is the destruction and degradation of the ecosystems
and habitats on which they depend. Main causes of habitat
loss and degradation include expansion and intensification
of agriculture, urbanization, infrastructure development,
pollution and climate change.
Looking at the information on threats in more detail, it
becomes apparent that although there are many similarities
and common patterns that can be drawn, there are also some
important differences between different species of mammals
in terms of which threats are causing population declines and
consequently which kind of conservation measures need to be
put in place.
For bats, as for many mammal species, loss of natural and seminatural
foraging habitats is a major problem. Specifically, the
expansion and intensification of agricultural activities combined
The Long-eared Hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus is a solitary, nocturnal species that hibernates in winter and lives in burrows. It is listed as Least Concern (LC) in the Mediterranean
region. Photograph © Ahmet Karatas.
17
with poor land management practices has led to a significant
reduction in the amount of suitable foraging habitat, as well
as to declines in prey species (for example, insects, which have
decreased in abundance as a result of the widespread use of
insecticides). Destruction of riverside vegetation is a particular
problem, as many bat species forage along watercourses.
Many bat species congregate to roost and breed, in a variety of
sites (depending on the species) including caves, hollow trees
and buildings. The disturbance and destruction of roosting
and breeding sites has a negative impact on many species. This
disturbance and destruction can occur as a result of a variety of
human activities, for example:
■ Tourism and activities of speleologists in caves
■ Caves being used by herders (used as shelters for livestock
and lighting of fires)
■ Placing inappropriate gates across cave entrances
■ Wood treatment in roofs of buildings
■ Conversion of attics
■ Restoration of buildings and bridges
■ Removal of old trees from forests, parks and gardens
In addition to the loss, fragmentation and degradation of the
habitats they rely on, bats suffer direct mortality as a result of
deliberate persecution – they are sometimes considered as pests
and are killed by fruit farmers, or their colonies in buildings
are destroyed. In parts of the Mediterranean region, some
cave-dwelling species are still hunted for traditional medicinal
purposes. Mortality due to wind farms is an increasing threat.
For non-volant (flightless) small mammals, habitat loss is again
by far the most important threat. Species often depend upon
a specific habitat type, and consequently they are particularly
vulnerable to any change in land use that results in significant
change to that habitat. For example, many small mammals
depend upon open grassland or steppe habitats. These are under
threat in the Mediterranean region owing to a combination
of factors. In some areas, agricultural encroachment and
intensification is the main problem, as natural steppe grassland is
replaced by intensive arable fields. In other areas, the problem is
the abandonment of traditional non-intensive agriculture – land
that is no longer grazed or mowed rapidly undergoes succession
from open grassland to scrub, which is less suitable for a number
of small mammal species.
It is a general pattern that excessive use of pesticides and
insecticides is harmful to small mammal species, particularly
species that feed upon insects and other invertebrates and that
consequently may be accidentally poisoned as a result of eating
contaminated prey. Additionally, deliberate persecution may
cause localized declines, and some small mammal species are
hunted and eaten as food.
For large mammals (especially cats, canids, antelopes and
deer), habitat loss and degradation has significant negative
effects on many species, but is overtaken in importance by direct
mortality deliberately caused by humans – overexploitation,
poaching and persecution. In addition to deliberate killing and
capture, large mammals are accidentally killed (for example,
through indiscriminate and uncontrolled use of poisoned bait
or as a result of collision with cars). Habitat fragmentation is a
particular problem for large mammal species that depend upon
the availability of relatively large expanses of suitable habitat.
Competition with expanding numbers of domestic livestock is
another threat, as is the attendant habitat degradation through
overgrazing that livestock may cause.
Finally, an important threat to all mammal species in the region
is desertification and decreased availability of and access to water.
This is already a major problem in some drier areas, and its scope
and severity is set to increase in future as human populations
in the region continue to grow, as agriculture becomes more
intensive and demanding in terms of the amount of water used
for irrigation, and as the impacts of climate change increase.
4.4 Protection of habitats and species in
the Mediterranean
At the international level, Mediterranean countries are signatories
to a number of important conventions aimed at conserving
biodiversity that have particular relevance for mammals, including
the 1979 Bern Convention on the Conservation of European
Wildlife and Natural Habitats, the 1979 Bonn Convention
on Migratory Species, the 1995 Barcelona Convention for the
Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region
of the Mediterranean and, most importantly, the 1992 Rio
Convention on Biological Diversity.
The Bern Convention supports the conservation and sustainable
use of species and habitats. The Convention is a binding legal
treaty covering the majority of states considered to belong to
the Mediterranean region for the purposes of this assessment,
including North African countries and Turkey. Considerable
work has been undertaken within the Convention for the
protection of mammal species, especially large carnivores. Apart
from numerous workshops and seminars, the Convention has
adopted recommendations and developed Action Plans for
certain species (e.g., certain large carnivore and bat species).
Under the framework of the Convention on Migratory Species
(CMS), there are several key regional agreements or initiatives
for mammals:
■ Conservation of populations of European Bats
(EUROBATS)
■ Conservation of the Cetaceans of the Mediterranean Sea,
Black Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS)
■ Conservation of Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes
Under the Barcelona Convention, specific Action Plans
have been developed for Mediterranean cetaceans and the
Mediterranean Monk Seal.
18
Mediterranean countries have committed themselves to a more
effective and coherent implementation of the three objectives
of the Convention on Biological Diversity. More specifically,
they have made the important commitment “to achieve by
2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity
loss at the global, regional and national level as a contribution
to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”.
European countries and the EU have gone even further, with a
commitment to halt the loss of biodiversity within Europe by
2010. This means that population declines should be stemmed
and ideally reversed, and that extinctions should be prevented.
This assessment indicates that a large number of species show a
long term decline, with a proportion of threatened species that
exceeds levels identified for other Mediterranean species groups
such as reptiles and birds. Nine Mediterranean mammals are
Critically Endangered, standing on the brink of regional or
even global extinction. On the basis of this evidence, it seems
unlikely that the 2010 target will be met, and a significant
increase in conservation activity and investment is needed to
ensure that rates of biodiversity loss are reduced in future.
4.5 A nthropochorous taxa and
conservation priorities
Anthropochorous taxa have been defined as “introduced
populations that have been formally described taxonomically”
(Gippoliti and Amori 2002). The Mediterranean Basin, one of
the 34 global biodiversity hotspots recognized by Mittermeier et
al. (2004), probably has more anthropochorous taxa than any
other part of the world (Gippoliti and Amori 2006). Human
civilizations have been continually present in this region for at
least 9,000 years, causing widespread damage and destruction of
natural habitats, and intentionally or unintentionally transporting
animals and plants between different island and mainland
locations. Mediterranean islands once were home to an array of
unique endemic mammals, including dwarf elephants and hippos
(Kotsakis 1990, Vigne 1992, Palombo 1996), but in part as a
result of human activities almost all of these endemic mammal
species are now extinct (Vigne et al. 1997, Simmons 1999,
Gippoliti and Amori 2006), and it has been contended that as
few as three ancient endemic species still survive (two shrews and
one mouse: Gippoliti and Amori 2006). The modern mammal
fauna of Mediterranean islands consists largely of populations
introduced in ancient or modern times by man, although some
of these populations have been isolated for so long that they are
phenotypically distinct from mainland forms and have been
recognized at the subspecific or even specific level. Two examples
of anthropochorous taxa found on Mediterranean islands are
the agrimi and the mouflon. These taxa are listed on Annexes
II and IV of the Habitats Directive (consequently requiring
strict protection and the designation of protected areas), under
the names “Capra aegagrus (natural populations)”, “Ovis gmelini
musimon (Ovis ammon musimon) (natural populations – Corsica
and Sardinia)”, and Ovis orientalis ophion (Ovis gmelini ophion).
A number of genetic and archaeozoological studies suggest that
they are feral populations of ancient domestic livestock (e.g.,
Groves 1989, Vigne 1994, Hiendleder et al. 1998, Manceau et
al. 1999, Kahila bar-Gal et al. 2002), and should be included
in the respective domestic species (Gentry et al. 1996, Gentry
et al. 2004), although this view is not universally accepted. By
contrast, two out of the three Mediterranean island species
identified as genuine palaeoendemics by Gippoliti and Amori
(2006), namely Crocidura zimmermanni and Mus cypriacus, are
not listed on the Habitats Directive Annexes.
There has been a historical tendency in the Mediterranean region
and worldwide for conservation interventions to focus on large
mammals and birds. In some areas, including the Mediterranean
(which, it should be remembered, qualifies as a hotspot as a
consequence of the high endemism of its vascular plants and
the high rate of habitat loss), there is evidence to suggest that a
The European mink Mustela lutreola is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) due to an ongoing
population reduction caused by habitat loss and the effects of introduced species. There is
considerable uncertainty about the numbers remaining today and further research is necessary
to assess the current population status and rate of decline. Photograph © Tiit Maran.
19
disproportionate focus on large mammal conservation may have
a detrimental effect on other biodiversity values (see Gippoliti
and Amori 2004, 2006 and references therein for examples). For
example, mouflon continue to be introduced to Mediterranean
islands (including protected areas) because they are considered
typical of the region (Gippoliti and Amori 2006), even though
there is evidence that overgrazing has a significant negative
impact on native plants (Fabbri 1966, Greuter 1979, Gippoliti
and Amori 2004), and many small Mediterranean islands are
regarded as conservation priorities because of the lack of antigrazing
adaptations in the endemic plants (Greuter 2001). It is
important that any conservation strategy aimed at maintaining
biodiversity and its evolutionary potential takes into account
the history (including recent history) of the regional biota, and
makes an effort: (1) to identify and direct attention towards
ancient endemic species that escaped previous extinction events
and are the repository of unique phylogenetic information; and
(2) to strike an appropriate balance between conserving large,
charismatic mammals (that may in some cases be relatively
recent additions to the regional fauna) and protecting other
forms of native biodiversity.
4.6 Conservation measures needed
Species frequently require a combination of conservation
responses to ensure their continued survival. These responses
include legislation, monitoring, research, management of
populations, restoration of balance between prey/predator
populations, habitat conservation and restoration, land
acquisition and management, and even captive breeding and
benign introductions for some of the Mediterranean region’s
most threatened mammal species. For species threatened across
their range, limited or local actions are unlikely to be sufficiently
strong or coherent to prevent extinction, and coordinated
action is required at the regional level. Although this Red List
assessment focused on the status of individual species, effective
conservation action needs to focus not just on species but also
on sites in the wider landscape, considering the heterogeneous
and dynamic nature of large territories on which the survival
of species depends (the ability to meet species requirements
inside and outside protected areas, among different land uses,
integrating use and protection across the landscape). In this
way, efforts to protect Mediterranean mammals can benefit all
Mediterranean species.
As discussed in Section 4.3, a variety of threatening processes
are driving species decline and extinction, and the relative
importance of these threats varies across different taxa
(although there are some important commonalities such as the
primary role of habitat loss and degradation in causing species
decline). Consequently, the specific conservation measures to
be recommended vary between different species and groups of
species. The following text gives further detail on the types of
measures that are required. This list is by no means exhaustive;
further information on the conservation needs of particular
species and taxonomic groups (e.g. canids) can be found in
the “Conservation Actions” section of each individual species
factsheet3, in the series of Conservation Action Plans produced
by IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Specialist Groups4,
and in the Action Plans produced under the Bern Convention
for certain priority species in the region.
3 Available online at www.iucnredlist.org
4 IUCN SSC Conservation Action Plans have been produced for a wide range of Mediterranean species and are freely available for download from the
following website, where a complete list can be found: www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/publications___technical_documents/publications/
species_actions_plans/
20
For bats, the main recommendations on the conservation
measures needed are to improve the legal protection
framework – all bat species should be legally protected
in the Mediterranean region – and to better enforce the
existing legislation, for example on the illegal destruction of
roosts sites. Another major conservation need relates to the
encouragement of more environmentally friendly practices, in
particular in agriculture – promoting organic farming (or at
least a limited use of pesticides), maintaining old trees, and
preserving riparian vegetation, hedgerows and linear habitats
to promote connectivity – but also when restoring buildings,
through taking into consideration bats’ requirements and using
non-toxic chemicals for treating timber in roofs. Additionally,
dispelling myths about bats and increasing awareness of their
ecological importance would improve the image of these species
and be a first step towards stopping their persecution. Further
research is needed on a number of issues including habitat and
foraging requirements, population size and trends, impacts of
pesticide use on prey species (such as locusts), and methods to
minimize impacts of wind farms; such research would help in
targeting conservation actions more effectively.
For non-volant (flightless) small mammals more sustainable
agricultural practices are again needed, especially in temperate
grassland (steppe) habitats, to prevent habitat loss and
degradation both from agricultural intensification and land
abandonment. Specific legislation and enforcement of existing
measures is needed to prevent the introduction of alien invasive
species (as pets or for commercial purposes), as several wellknown
cases such as that of the American Mink Neovison
vison have demonstrated the negative impacts of such imports.
Conservation actions should also be aimed at actively raising
public awareness of the diversity, importance and threats to
small mammals in order to modify their “pest” image and
explain their ecological importance. As a number of non-volant
small mammals are associated with freshwater ecosystems,
measures targeted towards water management (groundwater
extraction, artificial banks, dam construction, etc.) should take
into consideration the ecological requirements of these species.
Finally, further research should be encouraged, including on
taxonomy which remains poorly resolved for a number of
species.
For large mammals, recommendations include the
improvement of management of protected areas (especially
through well-trained, empowered and motivated staff) and of
the wider environment to ensure that it is wildlife-friendly and
that connectivity between different populations of the same
The Edible Dormouse Glis glis is widely distributed from northern Spain through central and eastern Europe and assessed as Least Concern (LC) in the Mediterranean region. This
species was traditionally hunted for subsistence and trade. Photograph © Boris Krystufek.
21
The Middle East Blind Mole Rat Spalax ehrenbergi is considered as Data Deficient (DD). It inhabits dry steppes, semi-desert and cultivated fields in coastal north-east Libya and central
coastal Egypt. It is widespread in the eastern Mediterranean and ranges north into Turkey. Photograph © Boris Krystufek.
species are ensured (for example through corridors). Illegal,
uncontrolled, or inadequately regulated hunting is a major
problem that has already driven a number of large mammal
species to extinction or near-extinction in the Mediterranean
region – better enforcement of existing laws and regulations
is needed to counter this threat and new legislation may be
required in some cases. Several legislative frameworks are
addressing large mammals, but efforts should be made to
improve the enforcement of these agreements. Species-specific
management plans (including the reintroduction of animals
in the wild, following IUCN Guidelines for Re-Introductions
(IUCN 1998)) have proven to be powerful tools. Additional
field studies and monitoring are also needed, in particular in
North Africa and the Middle East.
Restoring habitats and wild prey populations at the landscape
level is a key component for the conservation of threatened
large carnivores, requiring significant efforts in trans-boundary
cooperation. In the case of large herbivores spatial planning,
policy and management efforts for the maintenance of managed
grazing systems (i.e. preventing rural abandonment and the
conversion of grasslands into scrubland) and the altitudinal
gradient of habitat requirements is a key conservation measure.
Furthermore, education and public involvement programmes
among national, regional or local governmental officials (and
also among the general public) are needed to raise awareness on
the value and best practice for management of large mammals.
Large carnivores are very controversial from both a social and
an economic standpoint (many people feel frightened by
wolves and bears, and large carnivores are frequently blamed for
killing livestock), and therefore their conservation is as much a
socio-political issue as a biological one. Understanding people’s
attitudes towards predators and gaining their acceptance
is crucial to the success of conservation and management
programmes. Innovative ways to manage livestock and
compensation payments to cover farmers’ losses may be a
useful means of gaining local people’s acceptance about the
current trend of natural re-colonization of large carnivores over
large territories in northern Mediterranean countries. Tourism
is a growing activity which, when properly managed, has a high
potential to raise awareness and demonstrate socio-economic
benefits of the maintenance of the large mammal populations
that are iconic features of the Mediterranean region’s rich and
beautiful landscapes.
22
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24
Order Family Scientific name
IUCN Red
List Category
(Mediterranean)*
IUCN Red List
Criteria
Endemic
to the
region?
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Canis aureus Least Concern
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Canis lupus Least Concern
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Lycaon pictus Critically Endangered C2a(i);D
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes cana Vulnerable D1
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes rueppellii Least Concern
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes vulpes Least Concern
CARNIVORA CANIDAE Vulpes zerda Least Concern
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Acinonyx jubatus Endangered D
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Caracal caracal Near Threatened
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Felis chaus Data Deficient
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Felis margarita Near Threatened
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Felis silvestris Least Concern
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Leptailurus serval Critically Endangered C2a(i)
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx lynx Endangered C2a(i)
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Lynx pardinus Critically Endangered C2a(i) Yes
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera leo Regionally Extinct A2abcd
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera pardus Critically Endangered C2a(i)
CARNIVORA FELIDAE Panthera tigris Regionally Extinct A2bcd+4bcd;
C1+2a(i)
CARNIVORA HERPESTIDAE Herpestes ichneumon Least Concern
CARNIVORA HERPESTIDAE Ichneumia albicauda Not Applicable
CARNIVORA HYAENIDAE Hyaena hyaena Vulnerable C1
CARNIVORA HYAENIDAE Proteles cristata Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Ictonyx libyca Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Lutra lutra Near Threatened
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Martes foina Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Martes martes Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Meles meles Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mellivora capensis Near Threatened
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela erminea Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela eversmanii Not Applicable
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela lutreola Critically Endangered A2ce
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela nivalis Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela putorius Least Concern
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Mustela subpalmata Least Concern Yes
CARNIVORA MUSTELIDAE Vormela peregusna Vulnerable A2c
CARNIVORA PHOCIDAE Monachus monachus Critically Endangered A2abc;C2a(i);E
CARNIVORA URSIDAE Ursus arctos Vulnerable C2a(i)
CARNIVORA VIVERRIDAE Genetta genetta Least Concern
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Addax nasomaculatus Regionally Extinct A2cd;C1+2a(ii)
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Alcelaphus buselaphus Regionally Extinct
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ammotragus lervia Vulnerable C1
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra aegagrus Vulnerable A2cd
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra ibex Least Concern
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra nubiana Vulnerable C1+2a(i)
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Capra pyrenaica Least Concern Yes
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Eudorcas rufina Data Deficient
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella cuvieri Endangered C2a(i) Yes
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella dorcas Endangered A2cd
Appendix 1. Red List status of
Mediterranean Mammals
25
Order Family Scientific name
IUCN Red
List Category
(Mediterranean)*
IUCN Red List
Criteria
Endemic
to the
region?
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella gazella Vulnerable A1abd
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella leptoceros Endangered C2a(i)
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Gazella subgutturosa Critically Endangered C2a(i)
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Nanger dama Critically Endangered C2a(i);D
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx dammah Regionally Extinct
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Oryx leucoryx Endangered D
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Ovis orientalis Endangered B2ab(iii,v)
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Rupicapra pyrenaica Least Concern Yes
CETARTIODACTYLA BOVIDAE Rupicapra rupicapra Least Concern
CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Capreolus capreolus Least Concern
CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Cervus elaphus Least Concern
CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Dama dama Least Concern Yes
CETARTIODACTYLA CERVIDAE Dama mesopotamica Regionally Extinct D
CETARTIODACTYLA HIPPOPOTAMIDAE Hippopotamus
amphibius Regionally Extinct
CETARTIODACTYLA SUIDAE Sus scrofa Least Concern
CHIROPTERA EMBALLONURIDAE Taphozous nudiventris Least Concern
CHIROPTERA EMBALLONURIDAE Taphozous perforatus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA HIPPOSIDERIDAE Asellia tridens Least Concern
CHIROPTERA HIPPOSIDERIDAE Hipposideros caffer Data Deficient
CHIROPTERA MOLOSSIDAE Tadarida aegyptiaca Least Concern
CHIROPTERA MOLOSSIDAE Tadarida teniotis Least Concern
CHIROPTERA NYCTERIDAE Nycteris thebaica Data Deficient
CHIROPTERA PTEROPODIDAE Rousettus aegyptiacus Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus blasii Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus clivosus Data Deficient
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus euryale Vulnerable A2ac
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus
ferrumequinum Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus
hipposideros
Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus mehelyi Vulnerable A4c
CHIROPTERA RHINOPOMATIDAE Rhinopoma
hardwickii
Least Concern
CHIROPTERA RHINOPOMATIDAE Rhinopoma
microphyllum
Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Barbastella
barbastellus
Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Barbastella leucomelas Not Applicable
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Eptesicus bottae Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Eptesicus nilssonii Not Applicable
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Eptesicus serotinus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Miniopterus
schreibersii
Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis alcathoe Data Deficient
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis aurascens Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis bechsteinii Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis blythii Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis brandtii Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis capaccinii Vulnerable A4bce
26
Order Family Scientific name
IUCN Red
List Category
(Mediterranean)*
IUCN Red List
Criteria
Endemic
to the
region?
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis dasycneme Not Applicable
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis daubentonii Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis emarginatus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis myotis Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis mystacinus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis nattereri Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis nipalensis Not Applicable
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis punicus Near Threatened Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis schaubi Data Deficient
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus azoreum Endangered B1ab(iii) Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus lasiopterus Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus leisleri Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nyctalus noctula Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Nycticeinops
schlieffeni
Not Applicable
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Otonycteris
hemprichii
Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus ariel Data Deficient
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus deserti Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus hanaki Data Deficient Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus kuhlii Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus maderensis Endangered B1ab(iii,v) Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus nathusii Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus pipistrellus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus pygmaeus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus rueppellii Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus savii Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus auritus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus austriacus Least Concern
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus christii Data Deficient
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus kolombatovici Least Concern Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus macrobullaris Near Threatened
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus sardus Vulnerable B2ab(iii) Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Plecotus teneriffae Endangered B1ab(v) Yes
CHIROPTERA VESPERTILIONIDAE Vespertilio murinus Not Applicable
EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Atelerix algirus Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Erinaceus concolor Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Erinaceus europaeus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Erinaceus roumanicus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Hemiechinus auritus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA ERINACEIDAE Paraechinus
aethiopicus
Data Deficient
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura aleksandrisi Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura arispa Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura canariensis Endangered B1ab(ii,iii) Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura floweri Data Deficient Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura katinka Data Deficient
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura leucodon Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura lusitania Not Applicable
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura olivieri Not Applicable
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura pachyura Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura pasha Not Applicable
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura ramona Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura religiosa Data Deficient Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura russula Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura sicula Least Concern Yes
27
Order Family Scientific name
IUCN Red
List Category
(Mediterranean)*
IUCN Red List
Criteria
Endemic
to the
region?
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura suaveolens Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura tarfayensis Data Deficient
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura viaria Not Applicable
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura whitakeri Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Crocidura
zimmermanni
Vulnerable B1ab(i,ii,v)
+2ab(i,ii,v)
Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Neomys anomalus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Neomys fodiens Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Neomys teres Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex alpinus Near Threatened
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex antinorii Data Deficient Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex araneus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex arunchi Data Deficient Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex coronatus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex granarius Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex minutus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex raddei Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex samniticus Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex satunini Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Sorex volnuchini Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA SORICIDAE Suncus etruscus Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Galemys pyrenaicus Vulnerable A2ac+3c+4ac Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa caeca Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa caucasica Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa davidiana Data Deficient
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa europaea Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa levantis Least Concern
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa occidentalis Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa romana Least Concern Yes
EULIPOTYPHLA TALPIDAE Talpa stankovici Least Concern Yes
HYRACOIDEA PROCAVIIDAE Procavia capensis Least Concern
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus capensis Least Concern
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus castroviejoi Vulnerable B1ab(iii)
+2ab(iii)
Yes
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus corsicanus Vulnerable A2bcde+3bcde Yes
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus europaeus Least Concern
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus granatensis Least Concern Yes
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus microtis Not Applicable
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Lepus timidus Least Concern
LAGOMORPHA LEPORIDAE Oryctolagus cuniculus Near Threatened Yes
LAGOMORPHA PROLAGIDAE Prolagus sardus Extinct Yes
MACROSCELIDEA MACROSCELIDIDAE Elephantulus rozeti Least Concern Yes
PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus africanus Critically Endangered
PERISSODACTYLA EQUIDAE Equus hemionus Endangered D
PRIMATES CERCOPITHECIDAE Macaca sylvanus Endangered A2bcd+4bcd Yes
RODENTIA CALOMYSCIDAE Calomyscus bailwardi Data Deficient
RODENTIA CALOMYSCIDAE Calomyscus tsolovi Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA CASTORIDAE Castor fiber Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola amphibius Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola sapidus Vulnerable A2ace+4ace Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Arvicola scherman Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Chionomys gud Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Chionomys nivalis Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Chionomys roberti Data Deficient
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Cricetulus migratorius Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Cricetus cricetus Not Applicable
28
Order Family Scientific name
IUCN Red
List Category
(Mediterranean)*
IUCN Red List
Criteria
Endemic
to the
region?
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Dinaromys bogdanovi Vulnerable B2ab(i,ii,iv) Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Ellobius lutescens Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus auratus Vulnerable B1ab(iii) Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus brandti Near Threatened
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Mesocricetus newtoni Near Threatened
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus agrestis Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus anatolicus Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus arvalis Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus brachycercus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus cabrerae Near Threatened Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus
daghestanicus
Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus dogramacii Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus
duodecimcostatus
Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus felteni Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus gerbei Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus guentheri Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus levis Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus liechtensteini Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus lusitanicus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus majori Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus multiplex Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus savii Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus schidlovskii Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus socialis Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus subterraneus Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Microtus thomasi Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Myodes glareolus Least Concern
RODENTIA CRICETIDAE Prometheomys
schaposchnikowi
Vulnerable D2
RODENTIA CTENODACTYLIDAE Ctenodactylus gundi Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA CTENODACTYLIDAE Ctenodactylus vali Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA CTENODACTYLIDAE Massoutiera mzabi Least Concern
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga elater Not Applicable
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga euphratica Near Threatened
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga tetradactyla Vulnerable B2ab(iii) Yes
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Allactaga williamsi Near Threatened
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Jaculus jaculus Least Concern
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Jaculus orientalis Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA DIPODIDAE Sicista subtilis Not Applicable
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Dryomys laniger Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Dryomys nitedula Least Concern
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Eliomys melanurus Least Concern
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Eliomys munbyanus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Eliomys quercinus Least Concern
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Glis glis Least Concern
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Muscardinus
avellanarius
Least Concern
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Myomimus roachi Vulnerable B2ab(iii) Yes
RODENTIA GLIRIDAE Myomimus setzeri Data Deficient
RODENTIA HYSTRICIDAE Hystrix cristata Least Concern
RODENTIA HYSTRICIDAE Hystrix indica Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys airensis Not Applicable
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys cahirinus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys cilicicus Data Deficient Yes
29
Order Family Scientific name
IUCN Red
List Category
(Mediterranean)*
IUCN Red List
Criteria
Endemic
to the
region?
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys dimidiatus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys minous Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys nesiotes Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys russatus Data Deficient
RODENTIA MURIDAE Acomys seurati Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus agrarius Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus alpicola Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus epimelas Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus flavicollis Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus mystacinus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus sylvaticus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus uralensis Not Applicable
RODENTIA MURIDAE Apodemus witherbyi Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Arvicanthis niloticus Not Applicable
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus amoenus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus andersoni Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus campestris Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus cheesmani Not Applicable
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus dasyurus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus floweri Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus gerbillus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus grobbeni Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus henleyi Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hesperinus Endangered B1ab(iii)
+2ab(iii)
Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus hoogstraali Vulnerable B1b(iii)c(iv) Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus jamesi Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus latastei Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus
mackillingini
Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus maghrebi Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus
mesopotamiae
Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus nanus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus occiduus Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus perpallidus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus pyramidum Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus simoni Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Gerbillus tarabuli Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Lemniscomys barbarus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Mastomys
erythroleucus
Not Applicable
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones crassus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones dahli Endangered B1ab(iii)
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones grandis Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones libycus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones persicus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones sacramenti Vulnerable B1ab(iii) Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones shawi Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones tristrami Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Meriones vinogradovi Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Micromys minutus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus cypriacus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus macedonicus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus musculus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus spicilegus Least Concern
30
Order Family Scientific name
IUCN Red
List Category
(Mediterranean)*
IUCN Red List
Criteria
Endemic
to the
region?
RODENTIA MURIDAE Mus spretus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Nesokia indica Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Pachyuromys duprasi Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Psammomys obesus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Psammomys vexillaris Data Deficient Yes
RODENTIA MURIDAE Sekeetamys calurus Least Concern
RODENTIA MURIDAE Tatera indica Not Applicable
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Atlantoxerus getulus Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Marmota marmota Least Concern
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Sciurus anomalus Least Concern
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Sciurus vulgaris Least Concern
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus citellus Vulnerable A2bc
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus
taurensis
Least Concern Yes
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Spermophilus
xanthoprymnus
Near Threatened
RODENTIA SCIURIDAE Xerus erythropus Not Applicable
RODENTIA SPALACIDAE Spalax ehrenbergi Data Deficient
RODENTIA SPALACIDAE Spalax leucodon Data Deficient
RODENTIA SPALACIDAE Spalax nehringi Data Deficient
* Species were considered to be Not Applicable (NA) if they were introduced after 1500 A.D. or if they were considered to be of marginal occurrence in the
region. Species were considered to be of marginal occurrence if it was estimated that less than 1% of their global population occurs in the Mediterranean
region. In the absence of population data, terrestrial species were considered of marginal occurrence if less than 1% of their range lies within the region.
Native species of marginal occurrence are listed in the table above; introduced species assessed as Not Applicable are listed in Appendix 2.
31
Appendix 2. Introduced species
assessed as Not Applicable (NA)
in the Mediterranean region
Order Genus Species Status Justification
Carnivora Herpestes auropunctatus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Carnivora Neovison vison NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Carnivora Nyctereutes procyonoides NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Carnivora Procyon lotor NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Cetartiodactyla Axis axis NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Cetartiodactyla Cervus nippon NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Cetartiodactyla Hydropotes inermis NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Cetartiodactyla Odocoileus virginianus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Lagomorpha Sylvilagus floridanus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Rodentia Callosciurus erythraeus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Rodentia Callosciurus finlaysonii NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Rodentia Myocastor coypus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Rodentia Ondatra zibethicus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Rodentia Rattus norvegicus NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
Rodentia Sciurus carolinensis NA Introduced after 1500 A.D.
* This list may be incomplete.
32
Data were analyzed using a geodesic discrete global grid system,
defined on an icosahedron and projected to the sphere using
the inverse Icosahedral Snyder Equal Area (ISEA) Projection
(S39). This corresponds to a hexagonal grid composed of
individual units (cells) that retain their shape and area (~22,300
km2) throughout the globe. These are more suitable for a range
of ecological applications than the most commonly used
rectangular grids (S40).
The range of each species was converted to the hexagonal grid
for analysis purposes. Coastal cells were clipped to the coastline.
Appendix 3. Methodology for spatial
analyses
Patterns of species richness (Figure 4) were mapped by counting
the number of species in each cell (or cell section, for species with
a coastal distribution). Patterns of threatened species richness
(Figure 5) were mapped by counting the number of threatened
species (categories CR, EN, VU at the Mediterranean regional
level) in each cell or cell section. Patterns of endemic species
richness were mapped by counting the number of species in
each cell (or cell section for coastal species) that were flagged as
being endemic to the Mediterranean region as defined in this
project (Figure 6).
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessments
The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Eastern Africa. Compiled by William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith,
Thomas Lowe, Jean-Christophe Vié, 2005
The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Fish Endemic to the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Kevin G. Smith and William
R.T. Darwall, 2006
The Status and Distribution of Reptiles and Amphibians of the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Neil Cox, Janice Chanson and
Simon Stuart, 2006
The Status and Distribution of European Mammals. Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Andrew Terry, 2007
Overview of the Cartilaginous Fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea. Compiled by Rachel D. Cavanagh and Claudine
Gibson, 2007
The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. Compiled by William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith,
Denis Tweddle and Paul Skelton, 2009
European Red List of Amphibians. Compiled by Helen J. Temple and Neil Cox, 2009
European Red List of Reptiles. Compiled by Neil Cox and Helen J. Temple, 2009
The Status and Distribution of Dragonflies of the Mediterranean Basin. Compiled by Elisa Riservato, Jean-Pierre Boudot, Sonia
Feirrera, Milos Jovic, Vincent J. Kalkman, Wolfgang Schneider and Boudjéma Samraoui, 2009
IUCN
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Switzerland
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www.iucn.org/redlist
www.iucnredlist.org
THE IUCN red list
of threat ened species ™
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessment
